Farming for the Future

Resources: INDUSTRIAL ANIMAL PRODUCTION - PUBLIC HEALTH

Public Health Issues| Occupational Health and Hazards| Vicinal Air Quality | Antibiotics | Hormones

These references are listed by date, most current first. If no date was available, the references are listed at the end of the section.

PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUES

Isolation of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria from the Air Plume Downwind of a Swine Confined or Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation
Bacterial concentrations with multiple antibiotic resistances or multidrug resistance were recovered inside and outside to (at least) 150 m downwind of this facility at higher percentages than upwind. Bacterial concentrations with multiple antibiotic resistances were found within and downwind of the facility even after subtherapeutic antibiotics were discontinued. This could pose a potential human health effect for those who work within or live in close proximity to these facilities.

Mean total arsenic concentrations in chicken 1989-2000 and estimated exposures for consumers of chicken 
With the use of national monitoring data from the Food Safety and Inspection Service National Residue Program, this study estimated the amount of total and inorganic arsenic that is ingested by humans through the consumption of chicken. Using these arsenic estimates along with national chicken consumption data the authors reported that people who consume mean levels of chicken may ingest 1.38-5.24ug/day of inorganic arsenic from chicken alone. These findings were higher than previous estimates of arsenic exposure through the consumption of chicken.

Arsenic in food 
This letter to the editor of Environmental Health Perspectives commended the above article by Lasky et al., "Mean total arsenic concentrations in chicken 1989-2000 and estimated exposures for consumers of chicken," for providing a "notable contribution to the evaluation of the public health impacts of the use of arsenicals for administration in [chicken] feed." However, this author noted that due to the methodologies used in the Lasky et al. study, the conclusions drawn by the authors most likely underestimate the true risks of exposure to arsenic through the consumption of chicken.

Arsenic: A Roadblock to Potential Animal Waste Management Solutions
Keeve E. Nachman, Jay P. Graham, Lance B. Price, and Ellen K. Silbergeld. The localization and intensification of the poultry industry over the past 50 years have incidentally created a largely ignored environmental management crisis. As a result of these changes in poultry production, concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) produce far more waste than can be managed by land disposal within the regions where it is produced.

Effects of the Transportation of Beef Cattle From the Feedyard to the Packing Plant on Prevalence Levels of Escherichia Coli O157 and Salmonella Spp. 
Two hundred steers and heifers from a large feedyard (65,000-head capacity) were used to determine the prevalence levels of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157 (EHEC O157) and Salmonella spp. prior to and after shipping to a commercial packing facility. The results of this study demonstrate that transportation may be a potential stressor for cattle, as evidenced by the increased shedding of Salmonella spp. Journal of Food Protection February 2002

An ecologic study of dietary and solar ultraviolet-B links to breast carcinoma mortality rates 
William B. Grant, Ph.D. A multicountry ecologic study was conducted to determine dietary links to breast carcinoma mortality. It was found that the fraction of energy derived from animal products is the highest risk factor, and, conversely, that fraction of energy derived from vegetable products is the highest risk reduction factor. Cancer January 2002.

Concentrated Swine Feeding Operations and Public Health: A Review of Occupational and Community Health Effects  
"The numerous wastes produced by intensive swine production not only pose a significant challenge to effective environmental management but also are associated with decreased air quality in confinement houses, potentially transferable antimicrobial resistance patterns, and several infectious agents that can be pathogenic to humans." Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 108, Number 8, 685-699. Cole, D., Todd, L., and Wing, S. August 2000.

The BSE Inquiry 
"Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) are diseases increasingly found in humans and animals. This report examines the recent emergence of these diseases." 2000.

Prevalence of vancomycin-resistant entrococci in fecal samples from hospitalized patients and non-hospitalized controls in cattle-rearing area of France 
"[A] report on the prevalence of VRE fecal colonization on the basis of a prospective study among patients hospitalized in a hematology intensive care unit and among nonhospitalized subjects living in the local community."
Journal of Clinical Microbiology, Vol. 38, No. 2, 620-624 Gambarotto, K., Ploy, M. C., Turlure, P., Grelaud, C., Martin, C., Bordessoule, D., and Denis, F., 2000

Dioxins in the Food Chain: Background  
USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 1999
"Terrestrial food animals are thought to accumulate background levels of dioxin primarily through ingestion of contaminated vegetation and soil. Several incidents of contamination of food animals with dioxin concentration significantly above background levels have occurred during the past five years."

Intensive Livestock Operations, Health and Quality of Life Among Eastern North Carolina Residents
Steve Wing and Susanne Wolfe of the department of Epidemiology at the North Carolina School of Public Health, 1999. "This study supports previous findings that community members experience health problems due to airborne emissions from intensive swine operations."

Animal Diseases of Public Health Importance 
Emerging Infectious Diseases, Volume 3, No. 4, 1997
Gregory D. Orriss, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Italy
"This paper considers the importance of emerging foodborne diseases from the perspectives of the consumer and addresses prevention and control measures…" Addresses animal feeding and food safety concerns.

A Control Study of the Physical and Mental Health of Residents Living Near a Large–scale Swine Operation 
K. Thu, K. Donham, R. Ziegenhorn, S. Reynolds, P S. Thorne P. Subramanian, P Whitten, J. Stookesberry
"This article presents the results of a study assessing the physical and
mental health of residents living in the vicinity of a large-scale Swine
confinement operation." (Contact CLF if you would like a hard copy with charts and graphs)

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND HAZARDS

Serologic Evidence of H1 Swine Influenza Virus Infection in Swine Farm Residents and Employees 
CDC Journal of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol. 8 No. 8, August 2002
"Because pigs can play a role in generating genetically novel influenza viruses, swine farmers may represent an important sentinel population to evaluate the emergence of new pandemic influenza viruses."

International Hazard Datasheets on Occupation: Dairy Farmer 
"This datasheet is one of the International Datasheets on Occupations. It is intended for those professionally concerned with health and safety at work: occupational physicians and nurses, safety engineers, hygienists, education and Information specialists, inspectors, employers ' representatives, workers' representatives, safety officers and other competent persons." 1999.

Meta-analyses of brain cancer and farming
American Journal Industrial Medicine Volume 34, Issue 3, 1998. Pages: 252-260
"Conclusion: The consistent significant positive findings suggests that there is a weak association between brain cancer and farming. Exposures commonly experienced by farmers including infectious microorganisms and pesticides may contribute to the increased risk of brain cancer."

Contracting Occupationally Related Psittacosis 
OSHA Hazard Information Bulletins, August 8, 1994, Memo for Regional Administrators from Charles E. Adkins, CIH. "Psittacosis is caused by a bacterium, Chlamydia psittaci, which is transmitted to humans from birds. "Psittacine" birds, like parrots and parakeets, are classically responsible, although pigeons, chickens, and turkeys may carry the disease as well."

Human Health Effects of Agriculture: Physical Diseases and Illnesses 
Steven Kirkhorn, M.D., M.P.H Immanuel St. Joseph's-Mayo Health System
Marc B Schenker, M.D., M.P.H University of California Davis
"In this paper, we will discuss the progress made in identification of new respiratory syndromes related to confined animal feeding operations, pesticide-related illnesses, cancers implicated with agricultural exposures, and ergonomics in agriculture."

Respiratory symptoms in Swiss farmers: An epidemiological study of risk factors 
American Journal of Industrial Medicine: 39, 410-418, 2001. Danuser B, Weber C, Kunzli N, Schindler C, Norwalk D. "This study was undertaken to assess the prevalence and risk factors of work related respiratory symptoms in Swiss farmers."

Work-related respiratory symptoms in New Zealand farmers
American Journal of Industrial Medicine: 30, 292-300, 2001. Kimbell-Dunn MR, Fishwick RD, Bradshaw L, Erkinjuntti-Pekkanen R, Pearce N.
"The first national survey of respiratory health of New Zealand farmers [looks] at the prevalence of respiratory symptoms by farm type and work exposure."

The Respiratory Inflammatory Response to the Swine Confinement Building Environment  
Susanna Von Essen, M.D., M.P.H, Debra Romberger, M.D. Department of Internal Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, April 17th, 2001
"Swine confinement facility workers often develop respiratory problems secondary to their work, including acute bronchitis, the asthma-like syndrome, exacerbation of asthma, chronic bronchitis and mucuous membrane irritation syndrome."

Influence of Building Maintenance, Environmental Factors, and Seasons on Aireborne Contaminants of Swine Confinement Buildings
Based on an examination of eight confinement buildings, covering the widest possible range of cleanliness… "We conclude that a wide range of air contamination exists in swine confinement buildings of different maintenance."
American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, Vol. 61, No. 1, pp. 56-63. Duchaine, C., Grimard, Y., Cormier, Y., 2000

Dose-response relationships between occupational aerosol exposures and cross-shift declines of lung function in poultry workers: recommendations for exposure limits
Donham KJ - J Occup Environ Med - 2000 Mar; 42(3): 260-9
"Therefore, an industry-wide study was conducted to examine dose-response relationships of bioaerosol exposures and worker respiratory health. A total of 257 poultry workers were studied for respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function, and exposure to dust (total and respirable), endotoxin (respirable and total), and ammonia." (Site requires membership, please contact CLF for a hard copy)

Respiratory symptoms: Associations with pesticides, silos, and animal confinement in the Iowa Farm Family Health and Hazard Surveillance Project
American Journal of Industrial Medicine 38:455-462 (2000)
"The association between insecticide application to livestock and
symptoms of airways disease is a new finding that could lead to further study of specifc airway responses and exposures associated with this practice. Results confirming associations between respiratory symptoms and conventional vertical silos may be important in future studies aimed at prevention and control of exposures in those farm buildings."

Positive human health effects of wearing a respirator in a swine barn
Dosman JA - Chest - 2000 Sep; 118(3): 852-60
"Epidemiologic studies have shown that swine confinement workers are at increased risk of developing respiratory symptoms, reductions in expired flow rates, and increases in airways responsiveness. Acute changes in lung function have been reported among swine confinement workers and healthy workers after a 4- to 8-h work shift." (Site requires membership, please contact CLF for a hard copy)

Work-related respiratory disorders and farming characteristics among cattle farmers in Northern Germany
American Journal of Industrial Medicine: 36, 444-449, 1999. Radon K, Opravil U, Hartung J, Szadkowski D, Nowak D.
"The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of respiratory symptoms among North German farmers in relation to cattle farming characteristics."

Organic dust toxic syndrome in swine confinement farming
American Journal of Industrial Medicine: 35, 332-334, 1999. Vogelzang P, Van der Gulden J, Folgering H, Van Schayck C.
"Pig farmers are exposed to organic dust with pro-inflammatory capacities. This makes it likely that they suffer from organic dust toxic syndrome."

Asthma and allergy in New Zealand farmers
American Journal of Industrial Medicine 35:51–57 (1999)
"This study was, therefore, designed to ascertain prevalence rates for self-reported respiratory symptoms and workplace exposures in a population survey of New Zealand farmers."

Systems for Controlling Air Pollutant Emissions and Indoor Environments of Poultry, Swine, and Dairy Facilities 
University of Kentucky's Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering 1999, 51 pages.

Accelerated lung function decline in swine confinement workers
Senthilselvan A - Chest - 1997 Jun; 111(6): 1733-41
"We conducted a longitudinal study to determine the annual rate decline in pulmonary function measurements in male swine confinement workers. For comparison, a grain farming group and a nonfarming rural-dwelling control group were also chosen for the longitudinal study" (Site requires membership, please contact CLF for a hard copy)

Farm Workers Health Problems Related to Air Quality Inside Livestock Barns
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture (1997), 4 pages.
"The purposes of this Fact Sheet are to describe several farm worker health problems that are related to air quality inside livestock buildings and to consider possible methods to alleviate them."

Danger in the Dust 
Environmental Health Perspectives, January 1996, Volume 106.
"Respiratory disease remains one of the most common and important issues for those working in the agricultural field…potential respiratory hazards includes gases at potentially lethal concentrations, diesel exhaust, solvents, welding fumes, infectious agents and viral diseases from animals, and organic and inorganic dusts"

Safety in Swine Production Systems
North Carolina and Illinois extension specialists (1996, March), 4 pages, Publication No. PIH-104. Description of gas and aerosol hazards in livestock production buildings.

Exposure to Air Contaminants in Chicken Catching
American Industrial Hygiene Association: Vol. 56, No. 8, pp. 804–808, 1995
"It was concluded that Danish chicken catchers were exposed beyond recommended limits for the air contaminants evaluated. Details in chicken-catching technique may affect exposure to air contaminants, and development of preventive measures is recommended." National Institute of Occupational Health.

Ventilation of Poultry Slaughtering and Processing Plants
National Agricultural Safety Database (1995, August), "This document discusses ventilation options to prevent contamination between operations."

Case Reports: Epidemic Eye and Upper Respiratory Irritation in Poultry Processing Plants
Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene: Volume 10, Jan 1995. Sanderson, WT, Weber A, Echt E. "Case studies conducted at six poultry processing plants by NIOSH, OSHA and USDA revealed that processors and inspectors experienced acute eye and upper respiratory irritation associated with their work." (Contact CLF if you would like a hard copy)

Organic Dust, Endotoxin, and Ammonia Exposures in the North Carolina Poultry Processing Industry
Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene: Volume 10, Jan 1995. Lenhart SW, Morris PD, Akin RE, Olenchock SA, Service WS, Boone WP.
"Increased production of broilers has caused an increase in the amount of airborne contaminants to which poultry processing workers are exposed. The purpose of this research is to evaluate exposures experienced by NC poultry workers."
(Contact CLF if you would like a hard copy)

Livestock Confinement Dusts and Gasses
University of Maryland Farm Occupational Safety Information, Publications from the Farm Safety Database, 1992
"Perhaps more than any other occupational group, agricultural workers are exposed to a tremendous variety of agents potentially harmful to the respiratory system. Regardless of the type of agricultural operation, workers are likely to inhale some of these substances on a daily basis."

Fatal Inhalation of Liquid Manure Gas
Stephen R. Hagley, Diana L. South, Med J Aust. 1983; 2(9): 459-460.
"Modern methods of intensive livestock production involve the storage of liquid wastes. The digestion of this manure by anaerobic bacteria produces a highly toxic mixture of gases, the most dangerous of which is hydrogen sulphide. We report the case of a young man who died after inhaling liquid manure gas."
(Abstract only)

Confined Space Hazards a Threat to Farmers 
Michigan State University Extension, 6 pages
"When entering a confined area such as a manure pit, silo, grain bin, or an inadequately ventilated building a farmer may be at risk of being overcome by gases or dusts which can cause permanent lung damage or death."

Dust Spatial Distribution in a Typical Swine Building
University of Illinois "Dust has been implicated as a major contributor to the increased incidence of respiratory disorders among swine workers…"



Vicinal Air Quality

The Scientific Basis for Estimating Air Emissions from Animal Feeding Operations: Interim Report
Committee on Animal Nutrition, National Research Council, 2002, 122 pages
"Concern with possible environmental and human health effects of air emissions generated from animal feeding operations has grown with the increasing size, geographic concentration, and suburbanization of these operations in what was formerly rural, sparsely populated agricultural lands."

Potential Health Effects of Odor From Animal Operations, Wastewater Treatment, and Recycling of Byproducts 
A summary of the report by Susan Schiffman, Duke University and Dr. John Walker, US EPA, lead authors -- which was published in the Nov. 2000 Journal of AgroMedicine. "Complaints of health symptoms from ambient odors have become more frequent in communities with confined animal facilities, wastewater treatment plants, and biosolids recycling operations."

Systems for Controlling Air Pollutant Emissions and Indoor Environments of Poultry, Swine, and Dairy Faclities
University of Kentucky's Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering 1999, 51 pages.

Agricultural Nitrogen Emissions in Canada
Presented at a "Nitrogen conference" in the Netherlands, 1998
Sources, impacts, and abatement for atmospheric nitrogen emissions from agriculture.

Air Quality Issues Associated with Agricultural Operations
Kansas State Agricultural Research and Extension, Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service 5 Year Action Plan, 1998-2003. Effects of outdoor and indoor air quality effecting workers, animals, and environment.

Controlling Odor and Gaseous Emission Problems from Industrial Swine Facilities: A Handbook for All Interested Parties
By Amy Chapin, Charlotte Boulind, and Amanda Moore of the Yale Environmental Protection Clinic. Very readable report addresses the complex odor issues associated with large-scale swine production, methods for controlling odor, survey of regulations in the U.S. and Europe." Spring 1998, 81 pages.

Controlling Odor and Gaseous Emission Problems from Industrial Swine Facilities: Recent Laws and New Ideas
"by Amy Chapin, Charlotte Boulind, and Amanda Moore. Updates the above publication, going beyond odor problems to discuss economics, clean water, recent court cases, new laws (in Oklahoma and elsewhere), and alternative methods of raising hogs." Fall 1998, 24 pages.

The Association of Health Effects with Exposure to Odors from Hog Farm Operations 
North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, A. Dennis McBride, MD, MPH. "The purpose of this paper is to address the public health risks posed by exposure to odors from hog farm operations." 1998.

Swine Odor Task Force Report: Options for Managing Odor
This report from the Swine Odor Task Force was published by the North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, North Carolina State University, in March 1995.

Antibiotics

Airborne Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria Isolated from a Concentrated Swine Feeding Operation 
Amy Chapin, Ana Rule, Kristen Gibson, Timothy Buckley, and Kellogg Schwab The use of nontherapeutic levels of antibiotics in swine production can select for antibiotic resistance in commensal and pathogenic bacteria in swine. As a result, retail pork products, as well as surface and groundwaters contaminated with swine waste, have been shown to be sources of human exposure to antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Fluoroquinolone-Resistant Campylobacter Isolates from Conventional and Antibiotic-Free Chicken Products 
Lance B. Price, Elizabeth Johnson, Rocio Vailes, and Ellen Silbergeld The use of fluoroquinolones (FQs) in poultry production is an important issue in public health today. This study included a survey of Campylobacter isolates on chicken products from two companies and from two producers claiming total abstention from antibiotic use. Using both standard isolation methods and new methods modified to enhance detection of FQ-resistant Campylobacter, the researchers compared rates of FQ-resistant Campylobacter among these products.

Antimicrobial Resistance of Escherichia coli O157 Isolated from Humans, Cattle, Swine, and Food 
The data suggest that selection pressure imposed by the use of tetracycline derivatives, sulfa drugs, cephalosporins, and penicillins, whether therapeutically in human and veterinary medicine or as prophylaxis in the animal production environment, is a key driving force in the selection of antimicrobial resistance in STEC and non-STEC O157. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, February 2002

The Isolation of Antibiotic-Resistant Salmonella from Retail Ground Meats
"These findings provide support for the adoption of guidelines for the prudent use of antibiotics in food animals and for a reduction in the number of pathogens present on farms and in slaughterhouses." David G. White, Ph.D., et.al.
New England Journal of Medicine. Vol. 345:1147-1154, October 18, 2001, Number 16

Quinupristin-Dalfopristin–Resistant Enterococcus faecium on Chicken and in Human Stool Specimens
"The low prevalence and low level of resistance of these strains in human stool specimens suggest that the use of virginiamycin in animals has not yet had a substantial influence. Foodborne dissemination of resistance may increase, however, as the clinical use of quinupristin-dalfopristin increases."L. Clifford McDonald, M.D., et. al.
New England Journal of Medicine. Vol. 345:1155-1160, October 18, 2001, Number 16

Transient Intestinal Carriage after Ingestion of Antibiotic-Resistant Enterococcus faecium from Chicken and Pork
"The ingestion of resistant E. faecium of animal origin leads to detectable concentrations of the resistant strain in stools for up to 14 days after ingestion. The organisms survive gastric passage and multiply." Thomas Lund Sørensen, M.D., et. al.
New England Journal of Medicine. Vol. 345:1161-1166, October 18, 2001, Number 16

"Antimicrobial Use in Animal Feed — Time to Stop" 
Editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine. Vol. 345:1202-1203, October 18, 2001, Number 16. Please note: No abstract available, if you would like to view this editorial, you must sign in when you arrive at the web site.

Alternatives to Antibiotic Use for Growth Promotion in Animal Husbandry
April 17th, 2001, Food Research Institute Briefing, 17 pages.
"Because prevention of disease transmission and enhancement of growth and feed efficiency are critical in modern animal husbandry, there has been widespread incorporation of antibiotics into animal feeds in many countries."

Quinolone and Macrolide Resistance in Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli: Resistance Mechanisms and Trends in Human Isolates
CDC Emerging Infectious Diseases Vol. 7, No. 1 Jan–Feb 2001. Jørgen Engberg,, Frank M. Aarestrup, Diane E. Taylor, Peter Gerner-Smidt, and Irving Nachamkin
"The incidence of human Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli infections has increased markedly in many parts of the world in the last decade…. We review macrolide and quinolone resistance in Campylobacter and track resistance trends in human clinical isolates in relation to use of these agents in food animals."

The Human Health impact of Fluoroquinolone Resistant Campylobacter. Attributed to theConsumption of Chicken
FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine Revised Jan 5th, 2001, 113pages.
"In industrialized countries the food borne pathogens Salmonella and Campylobacter are infrequently transferred from person to person. Epidemiological data has demonstrated that a significant source of antibiotic resistant bacteria in humans is the acquisition of resistant bacteria from animals via food."

Draft Risk Assessment on the Human Health Impact of Fluoroquinolone Resistant Campylobacter Associated with the Consumption of Chicken
Food & Drug Administration, Revised February 9, 2000
"The Center for Veterinary Medicine prepared a draft risk assessment concerning fluoroquinolone-resistance in Campylobacter found in poultry…"

Presence of flouroquinolone-resistant coliforms in poultry litter
An examination of turkey farms, adult broiler breeder chicken farms, and broiler chicken farms with a history of fluoroquinolone (FQ) treatment.
Avian Diseases, Oct-Dec;44(4):963-7. Hofacre, C. L., deCotret, A. R., Maurer, J. J., Garritty, A., and Thayer, S. G., 2000

FDA Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance: Key Recommendations and Report, December 2000
"The Task Force felt that FDA has responsibilities and the potential to improve public health through actions in 4 key areas:
1.Promptly and effectively responding to current threats from drug resistance.
2.Facilitating and encouraging development and appropriate use of products which help address the issue.
3.Facilitating the safe and effective use and thus prolonging the life of products by helping improve the quantity and quality of information available to consumers and health professionals regarding antibiotic resistance and principles of appropriate usage.
4.Maximizing and coordinating FDA’s scientific research to address needs in antimicrobial resistance."

Antimicrobial Resistance: An Ecological Perspective
American Academy of Microbiology (2000)
"A colloquium was convened by the American Academy of Microbiology to bring together leading scientists to review the fundamental relationships between the use of antimicrobial agents in humans, animals, agriculture, and aquaculture and their effects on humans, animals, and the environment.The colloquium was held in San Juan, Puerto Rico, on July 16-18, 1999."

Enterococci with glycopeptide resistance in turkeys, turkey farmers, turkey slaughterers, and (sub)urban residents in the south of the Netherlands: Evidence for transmission of vancomycin resistance from animals to humans?
Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Vol. 43, No. 9, p. 2215-2221.
Stobberingh, E., van den Bogaard, A., London, N., Dreissen, C., Top, J. and Willems, R., 1999.

Antimicrobial Resistance: Solutions to a Growing Public Health Threat
Testimony of Diane M. Dwyer, M.D., Maryland State Epidemiologist, Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene representing the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists. (February 25, 1999)

The Use of Drugs in Food Animals: Benefits and Risks
Board on Agriculture, National Research Council
Full Text available National Academy Press, 1999, 253 pages.

Hogging it Report
Union of Concerned Scientists, 1998. 110 pages
This report provides an estimate based on a methodology of the amount of antimicrobials given to animals for nontherapeutic purposes, such as promoting growth.

Agricultural Use of Antibiotics and the Evolution and Transfer of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
Paper from the Canadian Medical Association reviewing the trends in antibiotic use and its potential impacts. (November 1998)

The use of antibiotics in food-producing animals: antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animals and humans 
"In response to bacterial resistance to antibiotics (which can occur through the use and overuse of antibiotics), the Minister for Health established a Joint Expert Technical Advisory Committee on AntibioticResistance (JETACAR) in 1998."

Protecting the Crown Jewels of Medicine: A strategic plan to preserve the effectiveness of antibiotics  
Patricia B. Lieberman, Ph.D., and Margo G. Wootan, D.Sc. Copyright © 1998, Center for Science in the Public Interest, 1998
CSPI believes public-health prevention measures should be adopted. Includes reccomendations by experts such as WHO, OTA, Institute of Medicine.

Agricultural antibiotics and resistance in human pathogens: Villain or scapegoat?
Allison J. McGeer, MSc, MD. CMAJ 1998;159:1119-20
"The emergence of antimicrobial resistance in human pathogens now threatens to increase overall mortality, morbidity and health care costs around the world. Addressing the issue of antimicrobial resistance has been called one of the most urgent priorities in the field of infectious disease."

Risks to Human Health from the Use of Antibiotics in Animal Feeds
Chapter 9 of Agricultural Uses of Antibiotics, USDA 1986.
(Hard Copy Only - please contact CLF for a copy)



Hormones
 
Human Saftey of Hormone Implants Used to Promote Growth in Cattle: A Review of the Scientific Literature 
Food Research Institute, July 2000 24 pages.

Assessment of the Potential Risks to Human Health From Hormone Residues in Bovine Meat and Meat Products
Scientific Committee on Veterinary Measures Relating to Public Health was invited to examine the use of hormones for growth promotion purposes in cattle, 142 pages. 1999.

Community Strategy for Endocrine Disrupters: a range of substances suspected of interfering with hormone systems of humans and wildlife
Commission of the European Communities. December, 1999. Endocrine disrupters include hormones given to beef.

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