The following resources provide a brief overview of the current science on the relationship between dietary patterns and chronic disease risk. The science consistently supports the recommendations to eat a dietary pattern rich in a variety of whole grains, vegetables and plant-based proteins such as beans and legumes with small to moderate amounts of lean animal protein. Not only does this dietary pattern promote good health, it also supports efforts to ensure greater global food security and protection of natural resources. Dietary patterns, however, are shifting away from plant-based to animal-based proteins and fats especially with the urbanization of developing countries. As a result, chronic diseases are now the major cause of death and disability worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), noncommunicable conditions, including cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, diabetes, obesity, and respiratory disease, now account for almost 60% of the 57 million deaths annually and nearly half of the global burden of disease. Lifestyle-related risk factors (high cholesterol, hypertension, obesity, smoking and high alcohol intake) cause the majority of the chronic disease burden. Chronic Disease Burden | Diet and Health - General | Cardiovascular Disease | Diabetes (Type 2) | Cancer - General | Colorectal Cancers | Breast Cancer | Overweight/Obesity
CHRONIC DISEASE BURDEN
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion
This CDC website provides an overview of chronic disease statistics and trends, including mortality, morbidity, and economic burden of disease in the U.S.
World Health Organization - Facts Related to Chronic Disease
This website provides statistics on the global burden of chronic disease. 
DIET AND HEALTH - GENERAL Low-Fat Diet
NEWS ANALYSIS - February 9, 2006 Potential Effects of the Next 100 Billion Hamburgers Sold by McDonald’s
Spencer EH, et al. American Journal of Preventative Medicine 2005 May;28(4):379-81.
“Consuming 100 billion McDonald's beef burgers versus the same company's McVeggie burgers would provide, approximately, on average, an additional 550 million pounds of saturated fat and 1.2 billion total pounds of fat, as well as 1 billion fewer pounds of fiber, 660 million fewer pounds of protein, and no difference in calories.”
Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Disease
World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2003
This report examines the role of diet in chronic disease development worldwide, noting a shift in dietary patterns from plant-based to animal-protein based diets.
Does low meat intake increase life expectancy in humans?
Singh PN, et al. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003 Sep;78(3 Suppl):526S-532S. “Conclusion: Current prospective cohort data from adults in North America and Europe raise the possibility that a lifestyle pattern that includes a very low meat intake is associated with greater longevity.”
The Health Benefits of Fruits and Vegetables: A Scientific Overview for Health Professionals
Hyson D. Produce for Better Health Foundation, 2002
“This booklet reviews the research behind eating more fruits and vegetables and many types of cancer, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, obesity, longevity, bone health, aging, neurodegenerative diseases, and many other diseases.”
Meat and meat products in human nutrition in developing countries
Bender A. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 1992.
This document reviews the role of meat in the diet, emphasizing the health benefits of meat and animal source foods in regions where food source is limited and malnutrition is common.
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
The link between saturated fat, high blood cholesterol and cardiovascular disease is strong, clear and convincing. More than half of all Americans have high blood cholesterol, an important risk factor for heart disease. The Bogalusa Heart Study has found evidence of heart disease risk factors in children as young as 5 and 6 years old. Diets low in saturated fat, cholesterol and total fat but high in fruits, vegetables and low-fat dairy products can lower blood pressure. Although high blood pressure is a primary risk factor for stroke, the association between saturated fat and risk of stroke is less clear.
Prospective study of major dietary patterns and stroke risk in women
Fung TT, et al. Stroke. 2004 Sep;35(9):2014-9. Epub 2004 Jul 1.
The “data suggest that a dietary pattern typified by higher intakes of red and processed meats, refined grains, and sweets and desserts may increase stroke risk, whereas a diet higher in fruits and vegetables, fish, and whole grains may protect against stroke.”
Diet, nutrition and the prevention of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases
Srinath Reddy K, Katan MB. Public Health Nutr. 2004 Feb;7(1A):167-86.
Review article. “Sufficient knowledge exists to recommend nutritional interventions, at both population and individual levels, to reduce cardiovascular risk. That knowledge should now be translated into policies which promote healthy diets and discourage unhealthy diets.”
The Relationship Between Meat Intake and Cardiovascular Disease
Erlinger T, and Appel L. 2003
This paper published by CLF reviews the scientific literature for data on meat consumption and cardiovascular risk and helps identify directions of future research into the health effects of meat consumption.
Child's "Bad" Cholesterol, Weight Predict Adult Artery Hardening
S Li. Journal of the American Medical Assoc. 2003 Nov 5;290(17):2271-6
Tulane University researchers conclude that high levels of LDL cholesterol and being overweight in childhood can lead to hardening of the arteries in adults as young as 33 years of age. Levels of "bad" cholesterol were identified as the strongest childhood indicator of later arteriosclerosis, which contributes to high blood pressure, strokes and heart disease. Multiple Lifestyle Changes Effectively Lower Blood Pressure
PREMIER Collaborative Research Group. Journal of the American Medical Association 2003;289:2083-2093.
The [study] group that had the best [blood pressure reductions] received counseling on the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, which emphasizes fruits, vegetables and low-fat dairy products. It includes whole grains, poultry, fish and nuts, and is reduced in fats, red meat, sweets and sugar-containing beverages. This group also was advised to exercise, lose weight and reduce salt intake. Optimal Diets for the Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease
Hu, F. Journal of the American Medical Association 2002;288:2569-2578.
"Substantial evidence" indicates that diets relying on non-hydrogenated and unsaturated fats, whole grains as the main carbohydrate, an abundance of fruits and vegetables, and adequate omega-3 fatty acids can offer significant protection against cardiovascular disease. Together with exercise, avoidance of smoking and a healthy body weight, these diets may prevent the majority of cardiovascular diseases in Western populations. Diet and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease and Type 2 Diabetes
J Mann. Lancet. 2002 Sep 7;360(9335):783-9.
"A cornerstone of [dietary] advice is the need for saturated fat to be as low as possible and for various vegetables (including legumes and pulses), fruit, wholegrain cereals, and low-fat dairy products to be encouraged."
DIABETES (Type 2)
Being overweight, poor diet and lack of physical activity are all important risk factors for Type-2 diabetes. A large study recently found that dietary improvements and moderate physical activity was more effective at preventing diabetes than the best pharmaceuticals currently available. Diabetics are at an increased risk for heart disease, making saturated fat reduction even more important. Despite popular misconceptions, diabetics should follow most basic dietary recommendations: eat a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, include plenty of low-fat dairy and moderate amounts of lean meat, such as poultry and fish. Avoid fatty, processed meats and refined starches. Diet and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease and Type 2 Diabetes
J Mann. Lancet. 2002 Sep 7;360(9335):783-9.
"A cornerstone of [dietary] advice is the need for saturated fat to be as low as possible and for various vegetables (including legumes and pulses), fruit, wholegrain cereals, and low-fat dairy products to be encouraged."
CANCER
Approximately one-third of all cancers could be prevented through better nutrition. High-meat diets may increase the risk of cancer, with the strongest evidence for cancers of the digestive tract (colon, stomach, esophagus). This may be due in part to the chemicals that are produced when meat is cooked at high temperatures or because of the lack of fruit, vegetable and whole grains that tend to accompany high-meat diets. Many plant-based foods are thought to be protective against cancers.
The effects of diet on the risk of breast cancer are still not clear. Some studies looking at women of all ages have found little or no association. But a more recent study found that animal fats can lead to higher rates of breast cancer in younger women. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of cancer
Key TJ, et al. Public Health Nutrition. 2004 Feb;7(1A):187-200
Overweight/obesity increases the risk for cancers of the oesophagus (adenocarcinoma), colorectum, breast (postmenopausal), endometrium and kidney; body weight should be maintained in the body mass index range of 18.5-25 kg/m(2), and weight gain in adulthood avoided...Fruits and vegetables probably reduce the risk for cancers of the oral cavity, oesophagus, stomach and colorectum, and diets should include at least 400 g/d of total fruits and vegetables...Preserved meat and red meat probably increase the risk for colorectal cancer; if eaten, consumption of these foods should be moderate.
COLORECTAL CANCERS
Meat, fish, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition
Norat T, et al. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2005 Jun 15;97(12):906-16.
”Conclusion: Our data confirm that colorectal cancer risk is positively associated with high consumption of red and processed meat and support an inverse association with fish intake.”
Meat Consumption and the Risk of Colon Cancer
Chao A, et al. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2005 Jan 12;293(2):172-82.
“Our results demonstrate the potential value of examining long-term meat consumption in assessing cancer risk and strengthen the evidence that prolonged high consumption of red and processed meat may increase the risk of cancer in the distal portion of the large intestine.”
"Western Diet" linked to colon cancer in women
American Cancer Society , February 2003
"Women who follow a typical 'Western' diet—characterized by higher intakes of processed and red meats, refined grains, sweets, and desserts—may be more likely to develop colon cancer, according to new research."
BREAST CANCER
Dietary patterns and the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer
Fung, et al. International Journal of Cancer. 2005 Aug 10;116(1):116-21
“In conclusion, we did not observe an overall association between the prudent or Western pattern and overall breast cancer risk. However, a Western-type diet may elevate risk of breast cancer among smokers, and a prudent diet may protect against estrogen receptive-negative tumors.”
OVERWEIGHT/OBESITY Perspectives on Childhood Obesity Prevention: Recommendations from Public Health Research and Practice
Obesity and its Related Diseased in China —The Impact of the Nutrition Transition in Urban and Rural Adults
Co-authors Xiaoping Weng, MD, PhD, of the Kaiser Permanente Foundation and Benjamin Caballero, MD, PhD, Professor of Nutrition at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Risk of overweight and obesity among semivegetarian, lactovegetarian, and vegan women
Newby, PK. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005 Jun;81(6):1267-74.
“Even if vegetarians consume some animal products, our results suggest that self-identified semivegetarian, lactovegetarian, and vegan women have a lower risk of overweight and obesity than do omnivorous women. The advice to consume more plant foods and less animal products may help individuals control their weight.”
World Health Organization’s fact sheet on overweight/obesity
Consensus View on the Role of Dietary Fat and Obesity
J. Foreyt. American Journal of Medicine, 2002: 113(9B):60S-62S.
Dietary modifications to treat obesity "include suggestions to reduce total calories by reducing fat intake, particularly saturated fats, and reducing intake of high-carbohydrate foods"
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