THE PHC MAP SERIES OF MODULES, GUIDES AND REFERENCE MATERIALS Each module includes: a User's guide a Facilitator's guide computer programs Module 1 Assessing information needs Module 2 Assessing community health needs and coverage Module 3 Planning and assessing health worker activities Module 4 Surveillance of morbidity and mortality Module 5 Monitoring and evaluating programmes Module 6 Assessing the quality of service Module 7 Assessing the quality of management Module 8 Cost analysis Module 9 Sustainability analysis Manager's guides and references Better management: 100 tips Problem-solving Computers The computerised PRICOR thesaurus Production Managers: Ronald Wilson, Aga Khan Foundation, Geneva and Thongchai Sapanuchart, Somboon Vacharotai Foundation, Bangkok, Thailand Co-Editors: Jennifer Sharples, Colin De'Ath, Bangkok, Thailand Design & Layout: Helene Sackstein, France Desktop Publishing: Marilyn J. Murphy, Suracha Suntarasut, Somboon Vacharotai Foundation, Bangkok, Thailand Printing: Thai Wattana Panich, Bangkok, Thailand Published in 1993 by the Aga Khan Foundation USA, Suite 700, 1901 L Street N.W., Washington DC and the Aga Khan Foundation, P.O. Box 6179, 1211 Geneva 6, Switzerland. Additional copies are available at the Aga Khan Foundation Canada in Toronto; Aga Khan Foundation (United Kingdom) in London; and AKF offices in Dhaka, Bangladesh; Delhi, India; Nairobi, Kenya; Karachi, Pakistan; Lisbon, Portugal; and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania; the Aga Khan University Faculty of Health Science in Karachi, Pakistan; the Somboon Vacharotai Foundation and the ASEAN Institute for Health Development in Thailand COMPUTERS MANAGER'S GUIDE Dedicated to Dr. Duane L. Smith (1939-1992), Dr. William B. Steeler (1948-1992) and all other health leaders, managers and workers who follow their example in the effort to bring quality health care to all in need. The Primary Health Care Management Advancement Programme has been funded by the Aga Khan Foundation Canada, the Commission of the European Communities, the Aga Khan Foundation U.S.A., the Aga Khan Foundation's head office in Geneva, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Canadian International Development Agency, Alberta Aid, and the United States Agency for International Development under two matching grants to AKF USA. The first of these grants was "Strengthening the Management, Monitoring and Evaluation of PHC Programs in Selected Countries of Asia and Africa" (cooperative agreement no. OTR-0158-A-00-8161-00, 1988-1991); and the second was "Strengthening the Effectiveness, Management and Sustainability of PHC/Mother and Child Survival Programs in Asia and Africa" (cooperative agreement no. PCD-0158-A-00-1102-00, 1991-1994). The development of Modules 6 and 7 was partially funded through in-kind contributions from the Primary Health Care Operations Research project (PRICOR) of the Center for Human Services under its cooperative agreement with USAID (DSPE-6920-A-00-1048-00). This support is gratefully acknowledged. The views and opinions expressed in the PHC MAP materials are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the donors. All PHC MAP material (written and computer files) is in the public domain and may be freely copied and distributed to others. Contents INTRODUCTION 1 COMPUTER SOFTWARE 7 Level 1: Basic software - DOS, word processor and Spreadsheet 7 Level 2: Intermediate software; utilities, database, graphics and form design 17 Level 3: Advanced software 31 COMPUTER HARDWARE 39 Level 1: Basic computer equipment 39 Level 2: Learning more about computer hardware 43 Level 3: Hardware for the advanced user 54 OTHER COMPUTER-WARE 61 WHEN AND WHERE TO BUY COMPUTER EQUIPMENT 63 WHERE COMPUTERS SHOULD BE LOCATED 65 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 66 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 67 GLOSSARY 68 Introduction Purpose of this guide When a computer system is purchased for your PHC programme, you need to decide how the computer will be used, the types of computer programs (software) that are needed, the best type of computer equipment (hardware) to use, and the appropriate accessories, such as a printer or communication modem to connect with the computer. This Computer guide is designed to assist you in selecting computer hardware and software. You can use this guide to determine what to buy and what not to buy, based on the needs of your PHC programme. Information to make the right decisions is usually scattered around in books, magazines and other sources. This Computer guide brings together the information that you will need to make intelligent hardware and software selection and purchasing decisions. Unlike computer magazines that provide long lists of technical features, this guide explains what computer hardware and software can do, without resorting to technical jargon. Product information is provided for three levels of computer users: Level 1: Basic Level 2: Intermediate Level 3: Advanced. The basic level is for PHC programmes just beginning to use computers. The intermediate level is for programmes that have used computers for several years and want to improve or expand their computer system. Level 3 is designed for advanced users who are more knowledgeable about computer hardware and software and have specialised needs. What a computer is and how it works The personal computer (PC) that you will learn about in this guide is a marvellous machine. A computer is a data processing machine. Data enters into the computer from the keyboard or data storage devices. The computer processes the data following the instructions of a computer program. Once data is processed, the output goes to the monitor screen and also may be sent to the printer. There are five key parts to a computer: processor, memory, input/output, disk storage, and programs. The processor - the computer's brain - executes programs or instructions. The memory is the workplace where processing takes place. The input/output mechanism is the way the computer takes in and sends out data. Disk storage is the computer's filing cabinet. The computer stores data here when it is not being used by the computer's memory. Programs are the instructions that tell the computer what to do. What a computer can do for you Before selecting a computer, programs and other equipment, determine what you want your computer to do: <$FDeposito, J. Ques computer buying guide. Que, Carmel, Indiana, 1992, pp. 12-15.> Work with words Work with numbers Organise data Manage finances Communicate with other computers Work with graphs and charts. Working with words:Word processors. You can use a word processor to type letters, memos, reports and proposals. You can use a word processor as you would a typewriter, but with greater accuracy and the ability to make changes in the text. Working with numbers:Spreadsheets. A spreadsheet can help you prepare financial statements, budgets, and expense reports. The spreadsheet is an electronic representation of an accountant's pad. Numbers are linked by formulae (e.g., addition, multiplication); any change to the spreadsheet recalculates all the formulae. Organising data:Databases. A database helps you organise names and addresses, inventories, personnel data, and any other information that would normally be stored in a filing system. A database allows you to store, extract and report data in many ways. Working with financial data:Accounting programs. Spreadsheets, databases and specialised accounting programs can be used to track PHC revenues, expenditures and budgets. Communicating with other computers:Communication programs. Communication programs allow you to send data between offices. For example, data gathered at a provincial or district level can be entered into a computer and sent to the central PHC office for additional processing. Working with graphs and charts:Graphic programs. Presentation graphic software displays information in graphical form. High quality charts and graphs can be created for written documents, overhead transparencies and slides. Graphic programs can produce line, bar, pie, as well as text charts. PHC programmes can use graphic programs to produce visual material for reports, manuals, and training sessions. The benefits of a computer Computers are powerful tools that can increase staff productivity and accuracy while saving time and money. 1. Computers simplify and speed up complex tasks. For example, calculations can be made faster. 2. The accuracy is improved. For example, calculations are more accurate. A spelling checker can quickly find spelling mistakes. 3. Information can be updated easily and quickly. For example, a spreadsheet program can recalculate an entire budget quickly and accurately. 4. Repetitive tasks can be eliminated or reduced. For example, word processors allow memos, letters and reports to be readily edited and revised without retyping. Templates or forms for reports can be developed and then used routinely. Should you bother to get a computer? Computerisation of your PHC programme requires an investment in computer programs and equipment, routine maintenance and repairs, and training of staff. In most PHC programmes this investment will be positively offset by improvements in management information, decision- making and service provider performance. If you are just beginning to use computers, start slowly with one or two basic applications. Do not try to computerise everything or install a wide variety of applications. Start with a word processor and spreadsheet or database, then provide the support required to make sure your staff can use them effectively. Once your staff feels comfortable using a computer, you may want to identify other information needs that can be supported by computerisation. Start by determining your initial computer needs and budget, + Before going on to the next chapter,, take a few minutes and complete the following checklist. You may want to discuss some of these items with other PHC managers or staff. As you use this guide,, you will probably want to return to the checklist to revise or add to it. , + What do you want to do with the computer?, + ___Work with words ___Work with numbers ___Organise and report data, ___Manage financial data ___Communicate with other computers ___Work with graphs and chart Where will you use the computer?, + ___At the PHC office ___At your home ___At office and home, ___At local project sites ___On the road Who will use the computer?, + ___PHC managers ___PHC technical support staff , ___Secretaries ___Computer staff @Z_TBL_BODY = _TABLE L/T, TABLE TEXT How much can you spend for each computer system (or total budget)?, + ___Less than $1000 ___Between $1000 to $2000 ___Between $2000 to $3000, ___Between $3000 to $5000 ___Between $5000 to $10000 ___More than $10000 Which features are most important?, + ___Cost ___Data processing speed ___Data storage capacity ___Ability to use windows programs ___Produce high quality printed reports ___Print wide spreadsheets or financial reports ___Portability and weight ___Colour display for graphs and charts How this guide is organised Each chapter is designed to meet the needs of different levels of computer users. Novice, intermediate and advance computer users are presented with information about computer programs, equipment, accessories, when and where to purchase hardware, and where to locate the computer in your PHC office. This guide is designed as a reference tool. You can go directly to the section of interest to you, e.g., software or hardware, and read the level 1 to 3 that pertains to you and your needs. Software. This chapter introduces the user to computer software and how it is used. You will learn how a computer can improve the performance of PHC service delivery and management support services. Level 1 presents DOS, word processing and spreadsheet programs. Level 2 is for intermediate users and describes utility, database, graphic and form design programs. Level 3 covers more specialised programs for accounting, statistical analysis, project management, telecommunications, and desktop publishing. Hardware. This chapter introduces the user to computer hardware. Level 1 starts with a basic introduction to the computer, monitor and printer. If you want to know more, go on to Level 2 for a more detailed discussion of computer equipment and accessories. This information will be valuable to PHC manager who need to determine the appropriate hardware to purchase. Finally, Level 3 describes special types of hardware which are needed by more advanced users. Other computer-ware. This chapter discusses "other computer-ware" which should be considered in developing a PHC computer system and protecting your investment. This includes electrical power regulation, protection from dust, storage areas, ventilation, protection from rodents, and back up of data. When and where to purchase computer hardware. This chapter provides helpful hints on the best time and where to buy a computer. Location of computers in the PHC office. The last chapter provides guidelines for selecting and preparing a site for your computer(s). Computer software Software consists of a sequence of instructions that the computer follows. When a program is executed, the instructions are loaded into the memory of the computer. The CPU reads the first instruction and performs that task; then it goes to the next instruction and performs that task, and so on. When the last instruction is performed the program ends. It is the software's job to make the computer do useful things, such as word processing, spreadsheet calculations, and organising data. Without software the computer does not know what to do. To select specific computer programs, the user must first be aware of what software does and the features available. This chapter describes the software that is available for basic, intermediate and advanced users, and how it is used in PHC programmes. Level 1:Basic software - DOS, word processor and spreadsheet When most computers are purchased, they come with a copy of DOS, a word processor and a spreadsheet program. For the novice computer user the first question is: what can these programs do? DOS: Disk operating system Operating systems like DOS supervise, co-ordinate and direct the work of a computer. DOS is a special program that runs each time your computer starts and carries out the following functions: DOS provides the direct interaction between the user and the computer. The key task for DOS is to receive and carry out the user's commands.<$FNorton, P. Inside the IBM PC and OS/2. Brady Publishing, London, 1991. pp. 279-81> DOS manages printers, disks, monitors, and keyboards. Disk management includes recording data, storage, and retrieval. DOS loads and executes programs. DOS gives you a way to communicate your instructions to the computer. You give instructions after the DOS command prompt C: DOS commands. When you turn a computer on, the computer will display the prompt C:>> (or something similar) followed by a blinking cursor. If you have only a floppy disk, the computer will only display the prompt A:>> This indicates that the computer is ready for your command. A command is simply a request to run a program. For example, when you type C:>>TIME DOS will run a sub-program called TIME and display the current time. Managing your hard disk. DOS allows you to group your programs in separate sub-directories (similar to folders). The following figure shows how programs and data can be organised by type of application: DOS FILE DIRECTORIES<$FThe main directory is referred to as the root directory (C:\). The directories within it are called sub-directories.> <$&dosdir[^]>Backing up the hard disk. Sooner or later you will erase or lose data that is stored on your computer. Since you have the original programs, there is little need to back them up from the hard disk.<$FYou should make an extra back up copy of a program when you first purchase it, in case the floppy disks are damaged or lost> Data files that you are working on and updating should be backed up on a regular basis (probably every day). There are three ways to back up data on disks: 1) save the files you are working onto directly to a floppy disk (and have a back up copy of the disk); 2) copy working files from the hard disk to a floppy at the end of the day; or 3) use a dedicated back up program or the DOS program BACKUP to back up files modified on or after a specified date. If you do not back up files, you are risking the loss of important data. Recovering from mistakes. DOS commands can help you deal with common accidents: erasing a file and accidentally reformatting a disk. When a file is erased and you later recognise that you need it, DOS lets you recover the file with the UNDELETE command.<$FIf you have Norton Utilities or PC Tools, you should use these programs instead of DOS.> A more critical type of error is to accidentally reformat a hard disk. The DOS command UNFORMAT allows you to recover your files. Basic DOS commands. Although MS-DOS Version 6 has more than 80 commands, only a few basic DOS commands are necessary, such as those on the following page.<$FThe list of basic DOS commands was taken from Stultz, R.A. Illustrated MS-DOS 5.0. Micro-Tech Publications, U.A.E., 1992. Many other excellent books on DOS are available. These include Simply DOS by Kris Jamsa, DOS 5, made easy by Herbert Schildt, and DOS for dummies by Dan Gookin.> This Guide also includes a shareware program for learning DOS called TUTORDOS, which is on PHC MAP diskette #1. Put it in drive B, and open the TUTOR sub-directory and read or print out the README.TXT file. DOS versions. DOS has been changed and improved over time. The latest Version 6.0 was distributed in 1993. DOS 6 offers new utilities for file transfer, virus detection, file back up, and data compression. Data compression permits you to double the amount of files on your hard disk. DOS 6 automatically compresses and decompresses files. Managing DOS: Tools to make your life easier. DOS commands can be executed by two ways: 1) typed in at the command prompt; or 2) selected from a menu-driven interface or visual shell. Shells are programs that help the user view files on hard or floppy disks and carry out DOS commands. The shell presents you with a list of things that DOS can do (such as copying and erasing files, creating and removing sub-directories, and executing programs), and you simply select the operation desired. With the shell, commands are easier to enter. DOS 5 now includes a DOS Shell. <$&dos-command[-]> The most popular visual shell is Norton Commander.<$FNorton Commander was recently updated and renamed as Norton Desktop for DOS and Windows versions.> Norton Commander allows both novice and experienced staff to use DOS without having to deal directly with DOS commands or the DOS prompt. The user can review a list of files, their sizes and dates. At the bottom are common DOS commands which can be executed by pointing at a file(s) and pressing the function keys on your keyboard. Another popular DOS shell is Xtree. Such programs as Norton Commander and Xtree are highly recommended and provide user-friendly tools for managing DOS. Aside from DOS these programs may be the most important ones on your computer. Word processing A word processor allows you to process words by making a series of refinements. You make an outline or rough draft; move text around; insert new text; delete unnecessary text; include tables and graphs until a final document is completed. Unlike the typewriter, which writes directly on to a piece of paper, the computer types your material into the computer's memory. Thus, you can easily replace, move, insert or correct words, sentences and paragraphs. You can make any editing changes, corrections and improvements at any time. What a word processor can do for PHC management Administrative services Write memos and letters Draft reports and other program documents Produce technical manuals Print mailing labels and address envelopes Planning Develop outlines of projects and planned activities Create contracts with standard and unique clauses Information, education, communication and marketing Develop attractive brochures, pamphlets and newsletters Import line drawings, photographs, and charts into word processing documents Write scripts for different media with distinct layout styles, screenplays, marketing presentations Training Produce training facilitator guides Develop worksheets and transparencies to be used during training sessions Produce training manuals with different sizes and types of fonts and bullets to emphasise key elements Research and evaluation Prepare proposals for research funding Write research/evaluation reports Produce tables with numbers and text<$FBuilt-in calculators let you add/subtract/multiply and divide numbers, and generate percentages. Also numeric data can be imported from spreadsheets into documents.> Integrate text, tables and charts Format academic papers or other long documents with stylistic requirements (fonts, paragraph layouts, footnotes, etc.) Supervision Develop supervisory checklists and agenda for meetings Write periodic supervisory or field reports Prepare performance reviews Logistics Write TO DO lists with planned/actual completion dates Draft periodic stock or inventory reports Develop inventory control forms Develop procurement criteria, tenders and contracts Personnel Develop job descriptions and recruitment notices Update employee records and issue letters of promotion and transfer Finance Write a narrative explanation of financial reports Merge financial tables and graphs with text Management Information Systems Develop reporting and recording forms Produce technical manuals for collecting and compiling service data Produce monthly, quarterly and annual reports covering all PHC delivery and management support services Spreadsheet Spreadsheet programs are an electronic version of an accountant's sheet of paper that is ruled with horizontal and vertical lines for rows and columns. Data and labels are written in cells. Through the use of formulas, data in cells can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. Because the spreadsheet is electronic, a change in the number of a cell results in a change in the total derived from the cell. The ability to revise totals, percentages and other calculations with the change of a single cell value causes spreadsheets to be very popular. A spreadsheet manipulates numbers by the use of formulas. Spreadsheets come with dozens of built-in formulas for different types of calculations. You type the formula, instruct the computer what cells you want to work with, and the spreadsheet does the calculation. For example, to calculate the total of a column of numbers, you type in the "sum" formula, the location of numbers, and the formula will give the total of these numbers. Costs of PHC services and activities Description, Antenatal care, Family planning, Immunization, Training Personnel Travel Equipment Supplies Other direct Indirect costs Total, 19,310 6,884 950 2,380 3,300 2,214 35,038, 2,400 1,532 724 1,382 1,822 7,860, 15,430 8,555 4,790 6,523 3,484 3,667 42,449, 6,886 7,090 2,587 1,165 2,224 2,210 22,162 What spreadsheet software can do for PHC management Finance Produce routine accounting reports which include expenditures and revenues by general ledger items Develop annual and quarterly budgets Carry out costs analyses: expenditures/revenues, cost-benefit, and cost-effectiveness analyses Planning Develop project plans and budgets Compare actual and planned activity completion dates Determine future programme costs and sustainability Logistics Produce a stock inventory data base Track the distribution, use and stocks in warehouses and service facilities Produce inventory stock reports for different types of facilities and administrative levels Management Information Systems Compare actual programme performance with targets using tables and graphs Show trends in key performance areas using monthly service data Rank the performance of administrative units, for key indicators Maintain a list or database of employees or community outreach volunteers, by job type and location. Research Produce cross-tabulations with counts and row/column totals. Present data in both tabular and graphic format<$FNewer spreadsheets provide both high-quality tabular and graphic output.> Supervision Develop a list of activities and products, scheduled start and termination dates, as well as costs for each item Track activities and actual completion dates Training Produce tables with numbers and graphs to record training or orientation sessions (by type of trainee and content of training) Develop a tracking system for training supplies (overhead projectors, flip charts, mobile units, etc.) Information, education, communications (IEC) and marketing Develop tables and graphs for brochures, pamphlets and mass media presentations Maintain an inventory control system for IEC equipment (cameras, VCR, film projectors, mobile units, overhead projectors) Key features to look for - and learn Word processors. The new versions of the leading DOS word processors - WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, and Wordstar - provide the following features: Menu: "Pull down" menu which permits easy access to a set of choices. Print styles: Most word processors support such basic print styles as boldface, underline, italic, superscript and subscript. Be sure that both your word processor and printer can print these styles. Tables: A very useful feature for PHC managers working with numbers is the ability to create and manage tables. A table feature takes the guesswork out of setting up tab stops and adjusting columns. Cut and paste: You can move and copy any block (letter, word, sentence, paragraph) to another place in the document or to a completely different document. Search and replace: This allows you to find a specific word or phrase and replace it with another. Spelling checker: It checks for misspelled words and helps identify the correct spelling. If you are not working in English, determine if a spelling checker for your language is available. Most word processors have spelling checkers for such major languages as French, Spanish and German. Formatting: Good word processors also offer features to improve the appearance of the document. These include automatic page numbering, headers/footers, justification, footnotes, and print preview.<$FSome word processors provide "style sheets" which permit the user to pre-define the fonts, margins and line spacing of paragraphs. A number of different paragraph "styles" can be defined and applied during the writing of a document. Styles throughout the document can be modified by simply changing the style sheet.> Tutorial: Excellent interactive tutorials are usually provided with the word processor. Tutorial manuals and programs are also available from such third party vendors as PC Magazine. All users, from novice to advanced, should take time to work through the tutorial that comes with the word processor. This exercise will demonstrate a wide variety of features often overlooked by the casual user. Spreadsheets. The major DOS spreadsheets - Lotus 1-2-3 and Quattro - provide all of the features mentioned below: Functions:All spreadsheets come with dozens of mathematical, statistical, financial, and date functions. Make sure the functions that you need are included.<$FThe most extensive selection of spreadsheet functions is provided by Excel for Windows.> Manipulation tools:Spreadsheets also have manipulation tools which permit you to create and revise them or copy, move and erase. These features work differently on various software; try them out and determine which is best for you. Formatting:Tools for formatting allow you to change the way a spreadsheet looks on the screen and is printed: justification of titles or labels; change the type style (bold, italic, underline) font type and size; insert/delete columns and rows, and change the width of columns; and sort data. Test the spreadsheet on your printer to make certain the output is what you want. Graphs:Most new spreadsheets versions have graphing capabilities which rival dedicated graphing programs. Both Lotus 1-2-3 and Quattro have extensive graphing capabilities which permit spreadsheet data to be presented in a variety of ways (pie, line, bar, and stacked bar).<$FYou will need to have a printer which can support the graphs. The graphic features of Quattro Pro for Windows rivals most dedicated graphic programs.> Macros:Macros allow keystrokes to be recorded and played back by a single keystroke. This is very handy if you are entering a large amount of data and you want to reduce the number of key strokes. 3-D spreadsheets:Some spreadsheets permit a 3rd dimension (rows and columns and pages). This permits easy consolidation of data across pages.<$FThe leading 3-dimensional spreadsheets are Lotus 1-2-3 Version 3 and Quattro Pro for Windows. Most other non-3-dimensional spreadsheets such as Excel allow data to be consolidated across separate spreadsheets by a process of linking.> Tutorials:Look for a built-in interactive tutorial that will permit you to try out the above features. Excellent third party tutorials are also available for Lotus and Quattro spreadsheets. Lotus manuals have been translated into all major languages. Level 2:Intermediate software; utilities, database, graphics and form design Read this if you have already completed Level 1 and are acquainted with basic software-DOS, word processing and spreadsheets. Sooner or later your computer software needs will exceed the capabilities of word processing and spreadsheet applications. Level 2 is designed for PHC staff that have additional needs: utilities to manage computer files and check equipment, databases to manage PHC information, graphic presentation software to produce charts, and "form" software to create PHC reporting forms. A majority of PHC programs are already using one or more of these programs. Utility programs Utilities refer to a variety of different programs which can be used to: Recover data that has been accidentally deleted (UNDELETE) Recover data from disks that have been accidentally formatted (UNFORMAT) Recover data when a disk has been damaged Repair damaged spreadsheet, database and word processor files Test the surface of a hard disk for damage Speed up and maximise hard disk performance<$FThis is accomplished by finding files that have been stored in fragmented segments, which takes more time to access. The program finds the fragments and puts them all together on the hard disk. As a result the hard disk spends less time accessing data.> Determine the status of your computer equipment and check for problems Back up data from the hard disk Detect and remove computer viruses<$FA computer virus is a computer program that is potentially dangerous. Most computer viruses reduce the performance of a computer or destroy data.> Utility software should become part of the arsenal of tools that protect you and your computer system. Consider them as insurance. While Microsoft DOS has continued to add utility programs (e.g., UNDELETE UNFORMAT), the best utilities are still found in such programs as Norton Utilities, Norton Desktop for DOS (and Windows version) and PC Tools. Computer viruses pose a threat to PHC data. Virus programs have been designed to do damage rather than good and aresimilar to a biological virus, as they need a host to live in. Their hosts are normally the executable files on your computer (with .EXE and .COM extensions). Viruses hide in these files until the files are run, then they search out other executable files and infect them as well. Other types of virus hide on hard disks and are activated when the computer is turned on. You get a virus by using infected software. No matter how the virus works, they attach themselves onto other programs or boot sectors on your hard disk, and often replicate themselves. Viruses generally place messages or signs to indicate their existence. Common symptoms of infection include: Sluggish system programs that take longer to load and operate than normally Odd disk access programs that access a disk more frequently or at odd times Odd error messages never noticed before Disappearance or appearance of files - files are deleted Decrease in available RAM (memory) Executable files (with .EXE and .COM extensions) become bigger Hard disk fills with data There are a few simple precautions to avoid infection: use write protect tabs on disks you use to store data check new software before installing or copying to the hard disk back up important data from the hard disk run an anti-virus program frequently do not wait until your computer is infected to obtain an anti-virus program Two virus protection programs which check for and remove viruses are Viruscan and Clean-up. Two other excellent shareware programs for checking your computer are: Infoplus, which displays information about your computer system (machine type, keyboard, mouse, video, memory and connections to the printer); and Advanced Diagnostics, which tests the CPU, floppy and hard disk drives, memory, video and other components. Utilities are most effective when used as part of routine equipment maintenance. For example, virus programs can be set to check the computer every time it is turned on. Hard disk checking utilities can be done every week to look for problems with the hard disk or files.<$FNorton Disk Doctor automatically performs six tests to determine the health of your hard disk, warns you if there are any problems, and gives you options to correct them. This program also examines the disk surface for physical defects and generates a report about your disk. Aside from preventive maintenance, Norton Disk Doctor should be used for a variety of problems: trouble accessing a disk, problems when you try to run applications, when your computer will not start and when files or directories seem to be missing but were never deleted.> Diagnostic programs can be used if you expect a problem and need to determine if a technical service is warranted. Databases A database is an organised collection of information (data) stored on a computer file which can be continuously updated. It is similar to a file cabinet with folders and documents which can be ordered according to some criteria and information can be retrieved. A database management program allows the PHC manager to enter data into the computer, file, edit and sort the data, search it, and view it in any format you want. All databases organise data in a tabular format with rows and columns (similar to a spreadsheet). The illustration below shows a list of PHC clinics, provinces, and phone numbers. In database terminology, each row in the table is a record, and each column is a field. Fields: Each column in the table is a field, representing a specific type of data. Fields are specified as TEXT or CHARACTER (names, addresses), NUMERIC (quantities expressed as numbers), and DATE. Records: Each row in the table is a record and is made up of all the fields. Tables: All of the fields and rows make a database table or file. Some of the common uses for database programs in PHC programmes are: Manage financial data Update personnel records Handle service provision records Manage inventory and stock reports Enter and store, survey and research data. What database software can do for PHC management Management information system and research Enter, process and report information on programme stat indicators. Enter survey data, check and clean, and generate summary counts, frequencies and tables. Finance Develop accounting and budget tracking applications. Personnel Maintain personnel records and job openings. Training Monitoring the training received by programme staff,, and community outreach workers. Control inventories of equipment and other supplies used for training. Logistics Track procurement and stocks of drugs, contraceptives, and other programme equipment. Information, Education, Communication and marketing Maintain an inventory control system for projectors, media production equipment, mobile units, and other IEC supplies. Track reports in the mass media (newspapers, radio and television). Monitor the use of IEC equipment in central and field offices. Supervision Maintain a list of employees, outreach volunteers, community leaders and managers of co-ordinating agencies. Administration Maintain and update addresses of staff and co-ordinating agencies. Planning Planners retrieve financial and service delivery data to analyse past performance, cost effectiveness and develop future plans and budgets. Graphics Graphic programs create images, charts, and designs that can be viewed on the screen, printed or plotted, and transferred to a slide for viewing by a group. Presentation graphics can be used to make a presentation or to include in a written report. The reason for using graphs is to simplify the meaning of columns and rows of numbers and to focus attention on the most significant points. Graphic programs are suitable for presenting quantitative data in pie, line, and bar charts and text using a variety of fonts, colours and patterns. The former is appropriate for presenting the results of service statistics, need assessments and evaluative surveys and financial data. Text graphs are useful to present written words during a training session or program report. Spreadsheet programs also provide high quality graphic capabilities, and there is no need to switch or export data to another graphic program. The user can create the graph directly from data in the spreadsheet. Both Lotus 1-2-3 and Quattro (the latest versions) produce graphs which rival dedicated graphic programs. What graphics software can do for PHC management Management information system Graphic presentation of service delivery data (linked to a table and narrative explanation). Show cumulative programme achievements. Compare actual performance levels with targets. Research Transfer data from tabular output (frequencies and cross-tabulations) to bar or other types of charts to show differences. Finance Present expenditure, revenue and budget data in a graphic format. Personnel Create charts of types of personnel by administrative area. Design organisation charts. Logistics Develop logistic flow diagrams (distribution of drugs, contraceptives and other supplies). Produce charts which illustrate stock levels by administrative area or facility (e.g., use of high/low charts to show stocks exceeding minimum or maximum limits). Supervision Produce a variety of quality control tools (Pareto charts, histograms, control charts). Develop problem-solving tools (e.g., fishbone diagrams and process flow charts). Design organisation structure diagrams. Information, Education, Communication and marketing Develop high-quality graphs for brochures, pamphlets and media presentations. <$FOther types of graphic applications, such as draw or design programs can be used to produce IEC materials. Examples of these programs include Corel Draw, Adobe Illustrator, and Draw.> Planning Illustrate trends graphically by comparing actual performance with performance targets. Produce financial charts showing expenditures,, revenues and sustainability. Develop project implementation flow charts. Create Gantt or time schedule charts. Training Develop training and presentation materials using text charts. Use graphs to produce slide presentations. <$&phc-orgchart[^]>Form design PHC programmes use forms in all management support services. These include reporting and recording forms, invoices and requisitions, time slips, payroll vouchers, and survey instruments. Form programs allow managers to develop forms which meet the specific requirements of the programme and can be modified as needed. The dominant DOS program used throughout the world is Formtool. After the form is designed, the same program (or optional feature) can be used to create a data entry screen for entering information into a database. Thus, this software can be utilised: 1) to produce a paper form, such a clinic register; or 2) to produce both a paper form and a matching data entry screen.<$FYou will probably require a laser or near letter quality printer to produce high-quality forms.> For Windows users, an excellent program to consider is Perform Pro. The following example of a travel expense form can be produced by Formtool or Perform Pro. Ground travel, Report No:, First name: , Last name:, From (Data), To (Data), Employee Number: #, Data, Explanation , Mileage, Amount Forms produced by software Management information system Design all types of reporting and recording forms for tracking the delivery of services, contact with providers, and for monitoring inputs. Research Develop survey questionnaires, then present data in tabular format with borders and lines. Finance Provide various types of financial reporting forms (invoices, monthly expenses, travel expenses, and vouchers for tracking daily expenditures). Logistics Produce inventory control forms for tracking service point and warehouse stocks. Design supply request forms. Personnel Develop forms for job announcements, recruitment and advancement, job descriptions, and biodata forms. Education, training and orientation Develop forms for recording educational, training and orientational activities for internal PHC staff and external community members. IEC/marketing Produce forms for tracking the use of IEC equipment and inventory control. Supervision Create performance review forms, and quality control and supervisory checklists. Key features to look for <197> and learn Database programs Ease of use:This will probably be the most important factor in selecting a database. If you have rather simple database demands you will be better off selecting a database which is easy to learn and use. Examples of this type of database include PC File, Alpha Four, Q&A and Reflex. Paradox still maintains ease of use but also offers a larger range of features. Relational structure:There are two major categories of databases: 1) flat files, and 2) relational. The flat file database allows you to access one file at a time. The relational database permits you to link two or more databases based on shared fields. In most cases you will only need a flat file database. For example, a yearly inventory database with ID codes and quantities can be related to another database with the same ID codes and the cost of each item. By relating these two files in a report, it is possible to generate an inventory list and the combined value (cost X number) of each item. Size limits:Most databases do not have limits on the number of records, but the maximum number of fields per records is set at 255. This is adequate for most applications, including surveys. If your survey has more than 255 fields, a database with more fields is advisable. Data entry screen generator:Many databases allow you to generate your own data entry screen. You can arrange the fields as you want and create labels for each field. Often data is entered from some type of printed or written form. The entry screen can be designed along the same format of the form to facilitate data entry. View multiple records in a spreadsheet-like format:This feature allows the user to review quickly one or more fields across 20 or more records. Since each record only uses one row in the browse mode, the user can view 20 or more records at one time on the screen. Report generator:Databases allow you to retrieve the data stored in about any format you want. The generator helps you design the format of the report and define math calculations to derive sub-totals, grand totals, and combine numeric fields. Third party companies also provide report generators which can be used with databases stored in common database and worksheet formats. The R&R Report Writer is a valuable tool which can be used with dBase, Foxpro, Clipper and other databases. The following illustration shows a cost analysis summary produced by R&R Report Writer. <$&CostCode[v]> Indexing and sorting of records:Databases permit you to index a file using one or more fields. Indexing allows you to easily look up a record using a field (e.g., find the record of a person by using their last name). Also you can permanently sort the records (in ascending or descending order) based on the values of one or more fields. For example, a data base can be sorted or indexed using either the surnames or first names.<$FIn newer databases look for multiple indexes (i.e., two or more indexes are located in a single index file). This type of index is easier to manage (an application has only one index file). Indexes on new databases also are much faster than over versions.> Programming language:More powerful database have their own computer language which allows you to create programs which are specifically designed to meet your needs. The language is used to create both data entry screens and report formats. Application generator:The applications generator permits you to generate programs with minimal programming. More advanced databases use the entry screen and the report generators to write computer applications in the language of the database. For example, dBase IV, Foxpro, and Clipper have programming languages and application generators which produce programs which can be directly reviewed and further modified. Querying and selection of records:Querying is a fundamental technique in managing your database. This feature allows you to "ask questions" of your database, isolate specific records, summarise data by adding and averaging. The technique of Query-by-Example (QBE) is the easiest. You provide an example of the kind of data you are looking for (e.g., Date = 9/1/92) and records dated after that point (after September 1, 1992) will be selected. Paradox, dBase IV and Foxpro have excellent QBE features. Graphics:Some database programs have built in graphing capabilities (e.g., Reflex, Foxpro for Windows and Paradox). Other applications use add-on graphic programs, such as DGE and Foxgraph. Compatibility:If you want to share data, you need a database that directly uses dBase formatted files (with the extension .DBF) or exports to the dBase format. You may also want a database that allows you to export data to Lotus spreadsheet files with the extension WK1. Graphic presentation programs Types of graphs:Basic graphing capabilities include numeric (line, bar, stacked bar, and pie) and text (composed only of words) graphs. Most programs create bullets, and numbered lists for use with text graphs. <$&graft4-1.eps[-]><|><$&graft4-2.eps[-]> <$&graft4-3.eps[-]><|><$&graft4-4.eps[-]> Choosing the right chart type will effectively convey the information. The following table summarises the information conveyed by each chart: To Show, Bar, Line, Hi/lo, Pie, Area, Scatter Change over time, 7, 77, , , Parts of a whole, 7, , , 7, , Relations or comparisons, , 7, 7, , 7, 7 Order or rank, , 7, , , , Trends or statistics, , 7, , , , 7 Scientific data, , , 7, , , 7 Preview:The user can preview graphs on the monitor prior to printing or plotting. Import:Data is imported from spreadsheets without re-entry. Export:Graphs are exported to other applications such as spreadsheet tables, word processor, and desktop publishing programs. For example, a worksheet and graph can be printed side-by-side.<$&pareto1.eps[v]> Village, Alba, Beba, Ceba, Dalva, Elava, Fula, Gala % of Target , 69, 64, 59, 54, 49, 44, 39 Target , 80, 80, 80, 80, 80, 80, 80 Actual, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25 Remaining, -25, -30, -35, -40, -45, -50, -55 Annotation:Letters, words, designs and imported clip art can be added to a graph and manipulated. Spreadsheet links:In developing a bar, line or pie chart, you start by entering numbers into a table or spreadsheet. Some presentation graphic programs (such as Freelance Graphics) allow you to directly link data in a separate spreadsheet with the chart. When you are working in the graphic program and retrieve a chart, the latest data from the spreadsheet is automatically reflected in the chart. Slide show capabilities and transitions:This feature allows you to present a series of charts, as if in a slide show (e.g., with fades and dissolves). The slide show is presented on a monitor or other device that projects the image on a screen. Slide shows can be used to build up a complex presentation one step at a time, to keep the audience from reading ahead of your discussion. The audience is focused on the point you are discussing. Note link:Speaker's notes link the graph with notes that can be used during the presentation. After the graphs are completed, the notes can be printed separately. Templates:Style sheets or templates which have pre-defined fonts and structure. You just enter the data, text and titles. Popular presentation programs include Freelance Graphics (DOS and Windows versions), Charisma and Powerpoint (only Windows versions). If you feel more comfortable working with a regular spreadsheet, which lets you easily go back and forth between the spreadsheet and the graph-both Quattro Pro (DOS and Windows versions) and Excel (Windows) offer excellent presentation graphic tools. Form design If you are working in DOS, the best choice is Formtool (the newest version is called Ft/Pro). Formtool includes the following features: Draw options: vertical, horizontal and vertical lines, arcs, circles, ellipses, and polygons Varied line widths Ability to set row and column spacing Pattern fills with graphs, crosshatches or other patterns Solid, dotted or patterned lines End-of-line joining options Different font types and sizes Zoom in/out to view the overall form or work on a specific portion with greater precision. Ft/Pro also includes a tutorial which leads you through the creation of a simple invoice form. By using the tutorial, you will learn about the above features, then design your own form. Ft/Pro is quick and easy to learn. If you already work in Windows, are a more advanced user and want still more features, Perform Pro should be explored. For most PHC programmes, Ft/Pro will be more than adequate. You may also want to obtain a complementary program called Form Filler which allow you to use the same form design on the computer to enter data into a database. Level 3:Advanced software If your software needs are met by the applications described in Levels 1 and 2, you may want to skip Level 3. On the other hand, if you have additional or more specialised software needs, read Level 3. More advanced software which will be discussed are accounting, statistical, project management, telecommunication, and desktop publishing. In most instances, these applications will only be used by one or two management support services, which will need specific computer software. Accounting software PHC programmes need some type of accounting or bookkeeping system. This type of computer program can help determine expenditures and revenues by general ledger codes, by type of service, activity or facility, by location or administrative area, and by specific time period. Many PHC programmes rely on spreadsheets or databases to track expenditures/revenues and to compare them with budgets. Other PHC programmes prefer to use specialised accounting programs which provide a series of financial modules. Full-fledged accounting programs provide several different modules: General ledger Purchase orders Accounts payable Inventory Report writer, Accounts payable Accounts receivable Payroll Fixed assets If you plan to use a full-fledged accounting program, determine which of these features you need and check them with the programs being considered. Before purchasing the program, see if you can try it out first-using codes from your accounting system. The program must be capable of handling your PHC programme's particular needs and generating financial reports that you can utilise. If it does not, you will probably need to develop your own accounting system using a database or spreadsheet program. Most popular accounting programs range in price from US$30 to several hundred dollars depending on the accounting modules you select. For example, the bargain-priced Pacioli 2000 sells for about US$30 and offers eight integrated modules (general ledger, accounts receivable, accounts payable, inventory control, billing, purchasing, budgeting and auditing). Two other more powerful programs are DacEasy Accounting (less than US$100) and Peachtree complete accounting (less than US$200). When you try these programs, make sure the currency units of your country can be handled by the program. Statistical software Statistical programmes are used by researchers to analyse survey data and by MIS managers to compile service information into cross-tabulations. Statistical programmes allow you to enter data into a database, analyse the data, and print the results. For example, the PHC manager, using Module 2, can carry out a needs assessment or evaluation, and then generate tabular reports, statistical calculations and graphs. Common uses of statistical programs include the generation of such basic statistics as counts, percentages, means and medians, cross-tabulations, regressions and analysis of variance. Key features of statistical programs Entry:Data entry screen generator. Format:Translation from text (ASCII), database (DBF) and spreadsheet (WK1) formats to the format of the statistical program. Interactive/batch modes:Both interactive and batch mode data processing. Interactive processing involves interacting and responding to prompts on the screen to name the data file, the type of analysis and the fields to be used. A batch mode refers to writing all of the same instructions to a text file; then the statistical program processes all of the instructions sequentially without additional input from the user. The batch mode means that you must know the commands of the statistical program and how to write a program to relate them. You can start with the inactive mode to understand how to use commands to create frequencies and cross-tabulation. Once you know how to use the commands, then write them directly into a batch file and process them. Variable and value labels:Labelling of fields and values of fields (also called variable labels and value labels) permits tables to be read and analysed easily. Grouping values:Recoding and grouping the values of fields allows ranges of values to be recoded into a single value. For example, women aged 15-49 years of age can be recoded into five-year age groups beginning with 1 through 7. For example, women 15-49 years of age are recoded to 1. Create new variables:New variables are created based on the value of other fields or combinations of fields. A cost field can be created by multiplying the number of units in one field with the cost per unit in another field. Updating and renaming the database:After labelling variables and values, recoding variables and creating new variables, a new database should be created with a different name. Selection of respondents:One or more variables can be used to select respondents. For example, mothers with children under age five can be selected from a survey of all mothers by checking the age of the youngest child. Weighting of variables:If you are using a stratified sample or other design that is not selected on "probability proportional to size," you will probably need to "weight" respondents.<$FRefer to the SPSS manual on sampling text for an explanation of respondent weighting.> Types of general statistics programs and features. While many sta<->tistical programs are available for the PHC manager, only Epi info and SPSS are considered because of the large number of users world-wide. Other excellent statistical programs include SAS, Systat, Statpac, BMDP and Kwikstat (a shareware program). Epi info was developed by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and is in the public domain. If you want to purchase a manual (highly recommended), the cost is approximately US$35. Epi info (described in Module 2) provides powerful data entry and statistical data analysis, using interactive and batch modes. SPSS is the most popular statistical program among health and population researchers. It offers a wide range of entry, statistical and presentation tools. Tables produced by SPSS can be designed to go directly into a final report. Users of SPSS often use a database or even Epi info for data entry and checking, then translate the data into SPSS for labelling, recoding, creation of new variables and generation of frequencies, cross-tabulations and other statistical procedures. The following illustration shows a table produced by SPSS. Percentage of health personnel who have done screening, +, +, +, + Personnel, Percentage of tubectomy, Medical, Screening vasectomy, N Midwife Physicians Non-VS facility, 66.0% 63.6% 59.6%, 84<|> 99<|> 54<|>, NA 35.4% 10.5%, 84 99 54 Project management software Project management programs are used to design and monitor project activities, resources and costs. The user begins by developing an outline of project activities or tasks and products to be completed. Next, each activity is given a start and finish date or time. Some PHC managers not only use this type of program to plan and monitor activities but also to relate resources (personnel and material) and costs to each activity. This permits a better allocation of resources (i.e., avoids under and over allocation of staff time) and relates each budget item to specific tasks and resources. Key features of project management programs: Outline mode:Project tasks (major and minor) are developed in an outline mode. Time line charts:Data can be presented in a Gantt chart (or time line) format. The Gantt chart includes each activity, start/termination dates, and a horizontal bar to illustrate the time period of the activity. Calendar reports:Calendar reports present scheduled activities in a calendar format. Tabular report:Cross-tab reports display a table of costs and resources during a specified time frame. Preview mode:The preview allows you to view your reports on the screen prior to printing. PERT flow charts:The PERT chart provides a flow diagram of project activities to illustrate which tasks must be done simultaneously. Planned versus actual:Data is entered for both planned and actual completion of activities allowing for comparisons and the tracking of completed activities. Spreadsheet view:A spreadsheet view allows you to select data columns (e.g., tasks, start, end, duration, resources, task costs) to display and print. Resource planning:Resource data (by type and unit cost) can be entered and then linked to project activities. Although many PHC programmes may use a spreadsheet to outline activities and determine start and end dates, several full-fledged project programs are available for PC computers (Timeline, On Target for Windows, Super Project, Microsoft Project, and Harvard Project Manager). For PHC managers who want a full-featured project management program, Timeline (DOS and Windows versions) provides all of the above features and is available world-wide. The strongest feature of Timeline is its ability to present time line or Gantt charts. Another program, On Target, is an abbreviated version of Timeline developed for Windows. Because of its built-in outline for project tasks and the ability to set start and end dates directly with a mouse, this is an easy program to use for developing spreadsheet and timeline charts. Communication software Telecommunication programs allow you to send files from one computer to another over phone lines. The sender and receiver of the communication each require a modem (explained later) and a telephone. Larger health and family planning organisations could use communication programs to send data between provincial or regional offices and the central office, and operate electronic mail services.<$FThe electronic mail service allows the user to leave a message on the host computer for a third party. The third party can phone the host computer and read the message at any time.> For example, service data at the end of each month can be compiled in each province and then sent by telecommunication to the central office for further processing and preparation of reports. Communication software is one of the most commonly used types of programs, and at the same time, is often one of the most difficult to set up and get working properly. Key features of communication programs are: Automatic dialer/redialer:The name, number and set-up protocols are entered into a table or "phone book." Using a menu, the user can select a name, and the program dials the number (and, if necessary, redials until a connection is made). LOGON/LOGOFF scripts:You can use a programming language to automate LOGON/LOGOFF data transmission procedures. This reduces phone line charges and simplifies data transmission. For example, a script can be used to phone a number, send files, receive files from another computer, and logoff without any action by the operator. Host mode:The host mode feature turns your computer into an answering machine. Your computer waits for a call from another computer, it answers the phone and informs the sending computer that data can be transmitted. Transmission speed:Your software must have the capability of operating at the fastest speed of your modem. The faster speeds of new modems may not be available on older versions of communication software. This should not be a problem with new software versions, but check it. File transfer protocols:These are norms which dictate how blocks of data are transmitted and checked for errors. There are some 15 protocols offered on popular communication software. You will probably only use one or two. The Zmodem protocol is excellent for phone lines characterised by line noise or interference. Even if a phone line is cut, Zmodem can restart the transmission where it left off. Look for this feature when you buy your software. Ease of set-up:This is very important owing to the complex protocols and codes that are used in communication software. If you have a chance, try out the program on your computer before finalising the purchase. In most cases, you will probably want some technical assistance to make sure your communication system is operating at its optimal level. Novices in communication software often fail to set up their software and modem to achieve maximum utility. Communication programs are popular, powerful and affordable. The world's best-selling communication program, Procomm, started as shareware and now sells for approximately US$70. Another popular program, Crosstalk, is often given freely with the purchase of a modem. Smartcom is often packaged with a Hayes modem. Such excellent shareware programs as Qmodem are available. In the case of communication software, more expensive does not translate into better performance. Purchase the computer program that maximises the utility of your modem and is easy for you to use. Desktop publishing Desktop publishing software produces attractive page layouts for newsletters, brochures, fliers, magazines, manuals and books. Some word processors operating under Windows are now able to duplicate many publishing features (e.g., Ami Professional, Word for Windows and Word Perfect for Windows). Desktop publishing applications combine text created in a word processor, graphics from a graphic or drawing program, tables and graphs created in a spreadsheet program. Text, graphics and tables can be manipulated to create the layout effect you want. For example, the layout of the PHC MAP material, including this guide, was done with a desktop publishing program (Ventura). Generally these programs fall into two categories: High-end programs (Ventura, Framemaker and Pagemaker) use a high-end program for long and complex documents. High-end programs include kearning and leading features: Kearning allows the space between individual letters to vary. Leading permits the space to vary between lines. Low-end programs (PSF-Publisher, and Express Publisher) Low-end programs are best suited for simple newsletters and fliers. Low-end programs force you to compromise on typographical features such as kearning, leading and the wrapping of text around graphic images. Since desktop publishing programs are specialised applications, you should carefully compare the features of the programs being considered to your own needs. The leading programs, Ventura and Pagemaker, have different strengths. Ventura is preferred for longer documents which follow a standard style. Pagemaker is preferred for smaller newsletters and brochures where the primary focus is on page layout and the use of graphic displays. Any PHC programme considering the use of desktop publishing to produce high quality documents should be warned that considerable staff training is required. Moreover, desktop publishing is an art. Thus most PHC programmes should either designate a specialised desktop publishing staff person or use an outside agency. Computer hardware This chapter introduces the user to computer hardware. Level 1 provides a basic introduction to new users. Level 2 is designed for intermediate users who want to know more about computer equipment and accessories. Level 3 covers hardware needed by advanced users. If you are new to computers, Level 1 will probably provide the information you need. Users who know the basic components of a computer and are planning to improve their systems, can find the information they need in Level 2. Level 1:Basic computer equipment Level 1 is designed to provide the novice computer user with knowledge about the basic components of a computer system; the system unit, video display, keyboard and printer. <$&386pc.cgm[-]><$&prnt2.cgm[-]> System Unit The system unit contains the motherboard, CPU, memory, adapter or expansion slots, power suply, and disk storage. Motherboard and the central processing unit (CPU) The most important part of the computer is the system board (motherboard). It is the large printed circuit board which includes the CPU, supporting chips, memory chips, and adapter card slots. The CPU handles the processing of data and determines the data processing speed. Many newer programs require faster CPUs, to operate effectively. CPUs with the 80386 processor perform 16 to 40 million operations per second while the original 8088 processor perform only 4.7 million. Slow CPUs will force programs to appear sluggish, and you will waste time waiting for commands to be completed. Memory <$&chip1.cgm[^]>Memory chips provide the work area for carrying out tasks. The greater the memory the greater the work capacity and speed. Memory chips for newer machines come in sizes of 1 megabyte (i.e., 1 million characters), 4 megabytes, 16 megabytes and, coming soon, 32 megabytes. Suggested memory requirements for the above CPUs are: Type, Amount of memory 8088, 640 kilobytes 80826, 1-2 megabytes 80386, 4-8 megabytes 80486, 4-16 megabytes Adapter or expansion slots <$&pcboard.cgm[^]>Adapter slots allow a variety of cards to be plugged into the motherboard. Adapter cards allow the computer to talk to every part of the computer and provide an easy way to add additional equipment. Most computers have six expansion slots. Basic adapter cards include: 1) video adapter; 2) input/output ports for connecting to the printer; and 3) controller for floppy and hard disk drives. Power supply The power supply converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC), and smoothes out the unevenness of electrical flow. <%-2>The power supply limits how much optional equipment can be installed. Original PCs had only 65-150 watts of power. New models have a minimum of 200 watts and allow for the addition of hard disks and other peripheral equipment. Even though hardware components now require less power, make sure your power supply has at least 200 watts. Disk storage In most computers the disk storage drives are located at the front of the system unit. The first type are floppy drives, and the second type are hard disk drives. Floppy drives come in two sizes 3.5" and 5.25". Newer floppy disks come in a 3.5" plastic case. Older PCs use 5.25" disks with a flexible covering. <$&525disk.cgm[^]><$&35disk.cgm[^]><%-2>Newer high density 3.5" diskettes hold 1.44 megabytes of data (an older 3.5" diskette holds only 720 kilobytes of data). Newer 5.25" diskettes hold 1.2 megabytes compared to 360 kilobytes for the older version. Size, Old (double density), New (high density) 3.5", 720 kilobytes<|><|>, 1.44 megabytes 5.25", 360 kilobytes<|><|>, 1.2<|><|><|><|> megabytes A hard disk can hold much more data than a floppy disk. Data is stored on rigid disks (more than one). Most hard disks now contain from 40-200 megabytes, but they can be more than several 1,000 megabytes in size. Video display <$&monitor1.cgm[^]>The video display requires a video adapter card (located in the system unit) and a monitor. There are a number of standards for video displays. Colour displays for newer PCs use VGA (Video Graphics Array). Older standards include: Hercules (monochrome), CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) and EGA ( Enhanced Graphics Adapter). A suggested video display includes a VGA colour monitor (14 to 15 inches) with a VGA adapter card (512 kilobyte to 1 megabyte of memory). Keyboard <$&keyboard.cgm[^]>The keyboard permits the user to enter instructions for the processor or to enter data. Because the keyboard is constantly being used, it is often the first component to break. <%-3>This part is often overlooked while considering a computer. Printer Printers transfer data from the computer to paper or transparencies. Printers are categorised as dot matrix, ink jet or laser. <$&printer1.cgm[^]>The basic configuration consists of an impact or dot matrix printer for either regular (8.5" x 11") or wide (17" x 11") paper. Lower quality dot matrix printers have only 9 pin print heads. Better quality printers now have 24 pin print heads which produce "near letter quality" type. Output (letters and graphs) are created when the print heads strike a coloured ribbon and ink is transferred to the paper. Level 2:Learning more about computer hardware Level 2 is designed for: 1) users who want to learn more about computers and available hardware; 2) PHC programmers that want to upgrade their present computer systems to increase data processing performance, communicate among computers, or improve the quality of printed output; and 3) users who are purchasing a computer for the first time and want to make sure the system will meet their needs. The computer hardware discussed in Level 2 includes the central processing unit, memory, motherboards, expansion slots, storage devices (both floppy and hard drives), video displays (video adapter and monitor), and printers. Motherboard and expansion slots When you open the computer, you will see a green coloured electronic board with several smaller electronic boards plugged into it. The main electronic board is referred to as the motherboard. It contains the primary electronic circuitry for the computer. The CPU and the co-processors, the RAM and ROM are mounted on the motherboard. Other electronic or expansion boards which control the monitor, printer, and storage disks are also plugged directly into the motherboard. The computer is designed to allow users to upgrade or modify their computer system by adding or changing expansion boards. When you purchase a computer system, it is important to determine if it has the expansion capability to meet your future needs. Most 80386 CPUs come with five or six 16-bit expansion slots. With a 80486 you may need two or three 32 bit slots. Discuss your computer configuration with the distributor and determine the size and number of slots you will need. Always try to have one or two extra slots for future expansion. Central processing unit (CPU) The central processing unit, or CPU, is the brain of the computer which performs the analytical, computational, and logical functions that occur within the system. The CPU operates by executing a program, or list of instructions. Each CPU has a different operating speed and capabilities. Most newer computers have speeds of 25 megahertz (MHz) per second or faster. The following is a list of IBM compatible CPUs and their speed in operations or bits per second: Clock speed (megahertz)<$FIntel, AMD, and Cyrix sell more than 20 different CPUs in the 80386 and 80486 families. The fastest currently on the market is Intel's 80486 with 66 megahertz.> 7, 7, 7, , , , , 386SL, , 7, 7, 7, , , , , 386DX, , 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, , , 486SX, , 7, 7, 7, , , , , 486SX, low power, 7, 7, 7, , , , , 486DX, , , , 7, 7, , , , 7 486DX, low power, , , 7, , , , , 486DX2, , , , , , , 7, 7 , Even though a 80486DX may have the same speed as a 80386DX (e. g., 33 MHz) the former gives significant improvements (about 85% more).<$FRosch, W. "The perfect PC." PC Magazine, July 1992, pp. 110-214.> Which CPU will meet your needs? Unless you want to buy the latest model of CPU you should wait until a CPU has been on the market for some time (e.g., one year). This will give enough time for the price to drop substantially.<$FThe next to last Chapter describes the most cost-effective approach for buying computer hardware.> Memory RAM (random-access memory) memory is available to store programs and data. Information placed in RAM can be modified but is lost when the computer is turned off. The most important considerations are how much, the type and speed of RAM needed. Amount of RAM.The amount or size of RAM is measured in terms of bytes. RAM is often referred to as so many K bytes (1 K = 1,024 bytes exactly) or megabytes (1 megabyte or MB equals approximately 1 million bytes). <%-2>Most 80386 computers now come with 4-8 MB of RAM. Usually, 4 MB will be sufficient for most applications. If it is not, simply add more RAM. Types of RAM chips.Modern computers use SIMMS (single on-line memory modules). One MB or 4 MB SIMMS include a set of 9 chips which plug into the motherboard at one time. RAM speed.SIMM chips have different speed ratings, typically 60 to 80 nano seconds (one-billionth of a second). In theory faster chips should increase performance, but the difference between 60 and 80 nano seconds on a 80386 computer is nominal. Faster 80486 computers should benefit from faster RAM chips. Mass storage Two types of mass storage devices are considered in this guidebook.<$FOther types of mass storage devices include CD ROM, tape drives and optical worms.> For several years dual floppy disks were adequate for storing programs and data. But as the size of applications outgrew the space limitations of floppy disks, users migrated to faster and larger hard disks. <%-2>The two main advantages of the hard disk over floppy disks are speed and storage capacity. Because the hard disk spins at a much higher speed, data can be located and manipulated much faster than a floppy disk. Speed is measured in terms of access time. The lower the access time, the faster the hard disk. The second advantage is the large storage capacity. Currently floppy drives store from 360K to 1.4 MB while hard disks vary from only about 40 megabytes (20,000,000 characters) to over 2,000 megabytes. Floppy drive As noted in Level 1, four kinds of floppy disk drives are available in two sizes of diskettes: 3.5" and 5.25". Formats include both double density (DD) and high density (HD). Floppy disks are removable storage media. You insert the floppy disk into a drive when you need the information the disk contains; you remove the disk from the drive when it is no longer required. Floppy disks are the choice for program distribution and data interchange. They are cheap and very reliable. <$&floppy2.cgm>High density drives allow you to format and use both double density and high density diskettes. Two floppy drives are suggested: 3.5" and 5.25" high density drives. Exchanging information with a desktop computer may require a 5.25" or a 3.5" diskette. Many older computers have only the former type. Notebook and laptop computers require 3.5" diskettes. You should standardise on high density floppy drives and disks, because compatibility issues can arise when you use double-density disks. High density (1.44 MB and 1.2 MB) drives will read double density (360 K and 720 K) diskettes with no problem. Having both sizes of floppy drives will mean that you can share data with all types of PCs. If you only have room for one floppy drive, you can choose a two-in-one drive that contains 5.25" and 3.5" drives.<$FThese floppy drives are produced by Canon and Teac.> Hard disk <$&harddisk.cgm[^]>Hard disks are the main storage device for PCs. Most software programs require a hard disk. Whenever a new program is purchased, the first thing you will do is install the program on the hard disk. Hard disks range in storage size from 40 megabytes to over 1,000 megabytes. As the size of the hard disks increase the cost per megabyte of storage capacity decreases. A typical hard disk for a 80386 PC is 120-200 megabytes. The minimum capacity you should consider is 120 megabytes. As programs become more complex and features increase, the required hard disk space will increase. In selecting a hard disk, consider the following: Size:Storage capacity refers to the amount of data that the hard disk will hold. Capacity is measured in megabytes (1,048,576 bytes) Access to data:Speed or access time refers to the average time required to read data from the hard disk. The smaller the access time, the higher the speed. Compatibility:When purchasing your hard disk, check for compatibility with your computer. Controller:The controller connects the CPU with the hard disk drive itself. The type of controller and the hard disk must match. Installation:Even if you have experience, get professional help to install a hard disk. Storage requirements:Determining the formatted capacity of the hard disk you will buy is the most critical decision and will determine the cost of the hard disk. Start by making a list of the computer programs that you plan to place on your hard disk and the storage space each will require. For example, word processing spreadsheet database DOS MS Windows 3.1 graphics Storage space =, 4.3 MB 6.5 MB 4.6 MB 2.8 MB 6.3 MB 12.4 MB 36.9 MB, Then multiply by 2-3 times to meet future needs. In comparing hard disks of different sizes, calculate the cost per megabyte. For example, IDE hard disks cost about US$ 2.50 per megabyte. Thus a 120 megabyte hard disk should sell for approximately US$300. By comparing the cost per megabyte you can better determine how much the storage space will cost you. Speed or data access time: Speed is an indicator of the hard disk's performance capability. If you are using database applications which are constantly reading from the hard disk, <%4>a faster hard disk may prove to be cost-effective. In most IDE hard disks installed in 80386 or faster computers, <%6>the disk access speed varies from 12 to 19 milliseconds. This should be adequate to meet your data processing needs.<$FOlder hard disks have noticeably slower access speeds which may mean that you will have to wait more as data is read from the hard disk.> Compatibility and controller: If you are buying a new hard disk, it is unlikely that your old controller card will work with the new hard disk. Newer 80386 or 80486 computers work best with faster IDE hard disks. The two most common types of hard disks are MFM and IDE: MFM are slow drives and are not recommended for 80386 nor 80486 computers. IDE <%4>drives are relatively inexpensive and will be the best choice for most PHC programmes using newer 80386 and faster computers. The standard IDE puts the controller on the drive itself. In some computers, the hard disk connects directly to the motherboard, in others an inexpensive adapter card is required. IDE drives normally insist on being the primary drive and may not work along with an older drive. Consult your distributor and determine if you can add an IDE drive and still keep the older one. Installation: Even if you have some experience with computers, you should have your hard disk installed by a professional. Improper installation can lead to damaging the motherboard or the hard disk. Also the warranty from the distributor may only be valid if the distributor installs the hard disk. When selecting the data storage components, select two high density floppy disk drives (3<$E1/2> MB and 5<$E1/4> MB). Buy a hard disk to meet your current and future needs (probably 2-3 times larger than the sum of applications you are now planning to use). As applications require more hard disk space, you will soon find that the space on your computer has shrunk.<$FIf your hard disk is full, erase or remove files to floppy diskettes, or use a file compression program such as Stacker or Superstor. DOS 6 also offers automatic file compression.> Buy the fastest and largest hard disk you can afford. Do not purchase a fast CPU and try to buy a cheap hard disk. If you have a slow hard disk, you have a slow computer. Video display (video card and monitor) <$&monitor2.cgm[^]>The video subsystem of a computer consists of the video adapter and the monitor. The monitor allows you to display information on a cathode-ray-tube on a desktop computer or an LCD screen on a portable. <%-2>The adapter card serves as an interface between the computer and the monitor. Monitor Three considerations in selecting a monitor are: 1) colour; 2) resolution; and 3) the size of the monitor's display screen. Colour: Most computer systems now come with colour VGA monitors, offering from 16 to thousands of different colour combinations. High resolution monochrome monitors are preferred for some DTP tasks which require a large monitor, and colour is not important. Resolution: <%-2>Two factors determine the resolution or crispness of the computer image: 1) the number of points of light (called pixels) on the screen; and 2) the "dot pitch" or size of each pixel (the smaller the sharper). <%-4>VGA monitors provide the following number of "points of light" or pixels: Type of monitor VGA Super VGA Extended VGA, Resolution 640 by 480 800 by 600 1024 by 768 Size of the display screen: The vast majority of monitors are either 14" or 15" (diagonally). If you need to do DTP or work with large and complicated layouts in Windows, a larger screen of 17" is suggested. All software today supports basic VGA. Higher resolutions allow you to display more and crisper information. Monitors with the SUPER VGA 800 X 600 resolution will meet the needs of most PHC programmes and are reasonably priced. Although monochrome (black and white, green, amber) monitors may be slightly more inexpensive, computer programs are easier to learn and operate in colour. Because some applications are designed for colour monitors, additional set-up up procedures are required for monochrome monitors. VGA adapters With 1 MB of RAM on the adapter card,<$FThe video adapter card has its own memory, usually 512 K or 1 MB for 256 colors. Using video RAM (VRAM) is faster than dynamic RAM (DRAM).> 256 colours can be displayed. Video memory limits the number of colours that you can display at one time. The relationship between the resolution (number of pixels), the number of colours which can be displayed and the required video card memory are presented below: Resolution, Pixels, 16 colours (4 bit), 256 colours (8 bit), 16.7 million colours (24-bit) 640 x 480 (VGA) 800 x 600 (Super VGA) 1,024 x 768 (Extended VGA) 1,280 x 1,024 , 307,200<|> 480,000 786,432 1,310,720 , 153,600 240,000 393,216<|> 655,360 , 307,200<|> 480,000 786,432 1,310,720 , 921,600<|> 1,440,000<|> 2,359,296<|><|> 3,932,160<|> Printer <$&printer2.cgm[^]>A printer transforms digital output into words, graphs and other images on paper or transparency. They come in a wide range of prices and capabilities. Output ranges from black on white to colour, and from low resolution to near-typeset quality. There are three main types of computer printers: Dot matrix impact This printer drives small pins into an inked ribbon to place dots of ink on paper. Today the standard dot matrix printer has 24 pins and can produce letter quality type.<$FNine-pin dot matrix printers are still available, but the characters are not as clear and sharp.> Both standard (8.5") and wide carriages (14") are available. Ink jet Most ink jet printers offer a wider range of fonts. Output quality is comparable to the better 24 pin dot matrix printers. They work by squirting small beads of ink at the paper.<$FInk jet printers can squirt 90,000 beads of ink per square inch for a resolution of 300 by 300. Although this is the same resolution as many laser printers, the quality of the laser is better.> Laser/fonts Laser printers offer the best output quality and are faster than ink jet printers. They are also more expensive than ink jet and dot matrix printers. The print is near-typeset quality.<$FThe latest Hewlett Packard laser printers provide a new standard of 600 X 600 dots per inch resolution, plus HP's Resolution Enchancement Technology (RET). RET improves text and line art by making it smoother. Cost is determined by the number and variety of fonts, the memory and speed. There are two main laser-printer languages (Postscript and PCL by Hewlett Packard). Key criteria for selecting a printer: Print quality: Laser computers provide the best print quality. If you need to produce near-typeset output, then consider a laser printer. <%-3>If print quality is less important, a dot matrix or ink jet printer will be adequate. In considering the purchase of a printer, you should print samples of your work and compare the print quality of various printers. Speed: Laser printers are the fastest at 4-10 pages per minute. The speed of the laser printer is determined by the processor of the printer, printer memory and image to be printed. Speed can be increased by adding memory to the printer. Graphic images require more time to print than text. @_BODY 2, 1ST = The speed of dot matrix printers varies with the quality or resolution. Letter quality printing is slower than draft quality printing. Popular Epson dot matrix printers vary in speed from 330 characters per second in draft quality to 110 characters per second in letter quality. Width of paper: <%-5>Dot matrix printers provide standard or wide-width carriages for printing large spreadsheets on 17" by 11" paper. Most laser and ink jet printers are limited to 8.5" by 11," A4 or comparable sizes of paper. Sound: Laser and ink jet printers are quieter. Cost: Dot matrix and ink jet printers are less expensive than laser printers. Generally laser printers are two to three times more expensive, plus laser printers require toner cartridges which need to be replaced every 8000 pages.<$FNew cartridges cost approximately US$80.> Multi-form printing: Multi-form printing requires an impact or dot matrix printer in order to print on multiple sheets of paper separated by carbon paper. @_BODY 2, 1ST = The quality of printed output required by your PHC organisation plus your budget will determine the most appropriate printer. If you do not require near-typeset output and a wide variety of fonts or graphics, a 24 pin dot matrix printer will be the most cost-effective choice. If you require wide printouts (17" by 11" inches), a wide carriage printer is the only solution.<$FLaser printers which print on wide paper are available, but they are much more expensive and service is not available to the vast majority of PHC programmes.>If your work demands high quality output and the use of varied fonts and graphs, a laser printer is the best choice for your PHC programme. Make sure that you can get service on the laser printer, that toner cartridges can be purchased locally at a reasonable cost, and that the printer includes a locally-supported warranty. Ink jet printers are not recommended for the day-to-day work of a PHC programme. <%-3>For the same cost, dot matrix printers are more durable and the printed output is comparable. Major brand of printer: Unlike desktop computers, printer manufacturing is dominated by several manufactures. If you choose a major manufacturer, you can be assured of software compatibility and technical support. The top seven manufacturers for 24 pin dot matrix, ink jet and laser printers include: No, 24-pin dot matrix, Ink jet, Laser 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7., Panasonic Epson Citizen Star Okidata IBM NEC, Hewlett-Packard Canon Eastman Kodak DEC Star Brother , Hewlett-Packard IBM Okidata Panasonic Epson Texas Instruments NEC Keyboards The selection of a keyboard is one of the most important decisions that you will make. A poorly made keyboard will cause you grief and result in reduced productivity. There is nothing worse than a keyboard that sticks or no longer works. A high quality keyboard is a joy to use. Key features of keyboards: Keyboard layout:Two basic layout designs are used: 1) function keys are located to the left of the keyboard; or 2) function keys are located on the top of the keyboard. Some keyboards also separate the cursor keys from the numeric keypad to make the data entry of numbers easier. If you are entering a large amount of numbers into a database or spreadsheet, separate keypads for the cursor and numeric keys are highly recommended. The location of the function keys is largely a matter of personal preference. Some users prefer the function keys on the left so that Ctrl, Alt and Shift combinations with function keys can be done with one hand. 12 function keys:Your keyboard should come with 12 function keys, plus dedicated cursor and numeric keys. The CTRL key should be located below the SHIFT key. Although there will be some variation, the ENTER and BACKSPACE keys should be enlarged for easy use. Tactile feel:There are two styles of touch: 1) click keyboards that give positive tactile feedback; and 2) soft-touch keyboards that have a "mushy" feel. IBM keyboards typify the click keyboard. The one you select is largely a matter of personal preference. Compatibility:Nearly all keyboards come with a switch to select between XT and AT (80286 and faster) computers. Check to make sure that the keyboard connector matches your computer. Most AT compatible computers use 5-pin DIN connectors. Durability and cost:With rare exceptions, quality and cost are directly related. Cheap keyboards (e.g., US$25-50) tend to break under heavy use in PHC offices. Common problems are dead or sticky keys. If these keyboards are not repaired, they tend to result in lost time and keyboard entry errors. It is wise to spend a little more and get a keyboard that will hold up under daily use in a PHC office. Top quality keyboards will normally cost two to three times as much as cheaper ones but are well worth the money. Excellent heavy duty keyboards are produced by Lexmark (for IBM), Northgate, Zeos, and Keytronics. Mouse <$&mouse.cgm[^]>A mouse is an input device used to select various options. It consists of a small, hand-held unit with two or three buttons and a small ball on the bottom. As the mouse is moved on the desk, the mouse pointer moves on the screen. With most new software, a mouse has become as necessary as the keyboard. Two other variations of the mouse which also serve as pointers include the mouse-pen (a pen with a small ball on the bottom) and the track ball (the ball is manipulated directly by the user). Key features of a mouse: Serial or expansion slot cards:A mouse is either connected to the computer via a serial port, or the mouse has its own expansion card. For AT type computers (with 80286 or faster CPU), buy a mouse that connects to a serial port (either 9 or 25 pin). If the mouse is 25 pins and the serial port is 9 pins (e.g., a notebook computer), you need a 9 to 25 pin adapter. Durability:Durability is paramount. Check the mouse to see if it "feels" well constructed. Similar to keyboards, pay a little more and get a mouse that will hold up under day-to-day use by PHC staff. The original Microsoft Mouse is an example of a well-built mouse. Test different mouse sizes and determine which one fits your needs and workspace. Make sure that you get a small pad with the mouse to ensure proper tracking. Level 3:Hardware for the advanced user Level 3 should be read if you have completed Levels 1 and 2, and you still have additional hardware needs or would like to learn more. As PHC programmes increase in size and complexity, special computer hardware needs arise:1) a math co-processor is needed to work with large spreadsheets and statistical applications;2) large database operations require a special "cache memory" to speed up data access on the hard disk;3) communication and data exchange between administrative regions requires a modem and communication software; and4) data and application sharing between administrative offices <%-2>means installing a Local Area Network (LAN). Co-processor A co-processor is a supplemental processor that works to assist the main CPU in performing specific operations. Two types, cache memory and math co-processor, are described below: Cache memory The cache memory speeds up operations by reducing the number of times the computer will read data from the hard disk. It does this by anticipating the needs of the CPU. Most 80386 or faster CPUs come with 64K to 256K of high speed cache memory already installed. In most cases the amount of cache memory is determined by the distributor and already installed on the motherboard. Ask the distributor how much is installed, then determine if you need any additional memory. Math co-processor The math co-processor is only recommended when a large amount of calculations is required, and the program has the ability to access the math co-processor. Thus, to use the math co-processor, the program must be especially designed to use it. Examples of applications which can use the math co-processor are large spreadsheets and statistical programs which perform a large number of mathematical calculations. Most databases will not benefit from a math co-processor. With faster computers now available, <%-2>PHC managers probably have no reason to invest in a math co-processor. If you need a math co-processor, you should consider the purchase of a 80486DX which already has the co-processor built-in. If you buy a CPU and later decide to add a separate math co-processor, it will probably cost more than buying the 80486DX in the first place. Modem <$&modem2.cgm[^]>Telecommunicating is achieved by linking your computer to a telephone line and contacting someone through a device called a modem. A modem changes computer information into sound impulses that can be transmitted over the telephone lines. You can communicate with another individual or bulletin board. To communicate over telephone lines, a modem and communication software are needed. Of course, you will also need a phone line. Key features of a modem: There are three key features to look for when selecting a modem: 1) speed of data transmission; 2) error correction; and 3) data compression. Speed of transmission:Although modems are classified by their fastest transmission speeds, they also transmit at slower speeds. There are currently three speeds which are rated in terms of bits per second (BPS).<$FThere are roughly 10 bits per character; thus a 2400 BPS modem can transmit 240 characters per second.> 2,400 bits per second:Modems with 2,400 BPS transmission sell for approximately US$100-150. This modem is only recommended if you are making local calls and phone charges are not a major concern.<$FModems with a top speed of 2,400 BPS use the V22 transmission standard.> 9,600 bits per second:The transmission speed can adjust to the quality of the phone line and drop to 4,800 if necessary.<$FModems with a top speed of 9,600 BPS use the V32 transmission standard.> 14,400 bits per second:This modem can reduce its speed when the phone line does not permit (falling back) and then increase the speed when the quality of the time improves. The 9,600 BPS modem only falls back to 4,800 on marginal phone lines. The 14,400 BPS modem is the best for optimising transmission speed when phone line quality does not permit the highest rate of transmission.<$FModems with a speed of 14,400 BPS use the V32 bis transmission standard.> Error checking:Modems are designed to check for errors in transmitted data. Make sure that your modem includes built-in error checking. The preferred error checking standard is termed "V42." Compression:To increase the actual throughput of data, modems compress the data before transmission and decompress upon being received. The preferred data compression standard is "V42 BIS." This allows for data compression approaching 4:1. Internal or external:An internal modem is inserted into an expansion slot on your motherboard and takes its power from the computer's power supply. It takes up an expansion slot but saves on desk space. The external modem has its own power supply, has lights which allow you to monitor the modem (e.g., sending and receiving), and normally costs about US$20 more. Modem lights can be important in getting communication software and a modem to work. Hayes compatible:Any computer that you buy should be "Hayes compatible." Hayes, an early manufacturer of modems, has set the standard for modem commands. Fax capability (send and receive faxes through the modem): Many modems now include fax capabilities, even the cheaper ones. Only a few dollars is added to the cost of a modem. Look for Group III compatibility (the world-wide standard) which transmits at 9600 BPS. Before deciding to use a modem for sending faxes, you should be warned that fax machines are easier to use by office staff than fax modems. Also it is easier to send via a fax modem than receive. Special software is required to link your word processor with the fax modem. Faxes you receive are really graphic images and cannot be moved directly into a word processor and printed. Several programs have been developed to convert text received by fax into your word processor. Although character recognition software has made improvements, the conversion process is not 100 percent effective. You may still need to correct the converted text. Finally, if you plan to receive faxes, both the computer and the fax modem must be turned on to respond to incoming faxes. If you have only a limited budget for a fax (e.g., US$100-200) or want to take advantage of the fax capability in the high speed modem you plan to buy, then a combined fax modem may serve your needs. On the other hand, if a number of your staff need access to the fax machine and a dedicated fax machine is within your budget, then the best option is a standalone fax machine. If you are on a very limited budget, a slow 2,400 BPS modem will suffice. However, 14,400 BPS modem prices have already fallen to the US$200-300 price range. If you must transmit over long distance phone lines, the 14,400 BPS modem will be your most cost-effective choice. The savings in long distance phone calls will pay for the extra cost of a high speed modem in a short time. Remember when you buy your modem to make sure that it is compatible with the other modem you plan to communicate with. Although modems may share similar standards and transmission speeds, there can still be problems of compatibility. Purchase all of your modems from the same manufacturer, preferably a well-known one such as Hayes, Intel, US Robotics, Microcom or AT&T. Before rushing off to buy a new high speed modem, you should be warned. Your next modem may be your last. As phone companies switch from analogue to digital transmission, today's modem will become obsolete. Notebook computers <$&laptop1.cgm[^]>Major advances have been made in portable computers during the last several years. Notebook sized computers weigh less than 7 lbs.<$FSome subnotebooks weigh only 2-3 pounds, use AA batteries and can operate for 6-8 hours without replacement.> High speed CPUs offer the same performance as desktop computers. Light-weight hard disks offer ample storage capacities of over 100 megabytes. Screens have been improved to permit work under a variety of lighting conditions. Improved batteries and CPU designs now permit use over three hours. In the future, the quality of screens will continue to improve, hard disk size will increase, and the time between recharging will increase. The price of colour notebook computers will also decrease. Regardless of these advantages, a portable computer is not recommended for a PHC programme, unless work outside of the normal office context is necessary. For example, if you need to travel to different offices or clinic sites and use a computer, or you need to work in your hotel room while travelling, then a portable computer may be the only solution. Several reasons why a PHC programme would be better served using only desktop computers are: Portables are less cost-effective than desktop computers. For the same cost, the desktop computer will have more performance and features (particularly a larger VGA monitor and a full size keyboard). Repairs:Sooner or later most computers need to be repaired. Desktop computer parts can usually be interchanged between brands, plus they can be repaired locally. Portable computer parts tend to be brand-specific and therefore more costly. For example, popular Toshiba notebook computers require Toshiba parts and replacement by an authorised Toshiba service centre. A black and white replacement screen for a portable can cost twice the amount of a colour VGA monitor. Outside of major urban centres (and in many developing countries), service for portables is virtually nil. Theft:Because notebook computers are expensive and more easily stolen, PHC managers tend to control access. Desktops, in contrast, are left on desks and are more accessible to staff. If you have decided that a notebook computer is what your PHC programme needs, consider the following features: Weight and size:Most laptops, including the adapter, weigh less than 8 lbs. and are approximately 8.5 by 11 inches. Readability of the screen:A backlit screen will permit use in either bright daylight or a darkened hotel room. Keyboard size and layout:The keyboard should allow for touch typing and easy access to function and cursor keys. Try out the keyboard and make sure you like it before purchasing. Look for an oversized ENTER key and an inverted T cursor layout. Hard disk capacity:Most portables come with 80 to 120 megabytes of storage capacity. Do not buy a 20 or 40 megabyte hard disk since you will soon find it is too small. Duration of the battery without recharging:Battery life depends on the watts required by the CPU,<$FIntel processors with the SL extension are especially designed to draw less electricity and allow notebook computers to last longer before recharging the battery.> use of floppy and hard drives, as well as the battery itself. Three hours of battery life should be the minimum. Some laptops now have 5-6 hours of battery use without recharging. Most will only operate 2.5 to 4 hours under normal working conditions. If you need to use the laptop in areas where no electricity is available, you should consider buying one or more extra batteries. Durability of the case:Check the case to see how well it is constructed and talk with owners who have used the computer under a variety of conditions.<$FPopular computer magazine reviews provide durability tests of notebook computers.> Access to warranty and repair service:Buy a laptop that can be repaired locally by a service centre. Before buying make sure that the service centre is local and carries spare parts. Budget:Most monochrome notebooks with a 80386 CPU and hard disk sell internationally (i.e., without local taxes) for US$1200 to US$2,000. Colour notebooks start around US$2,000. Never buy a notebook without first trying it out in a variety of lighting conditions (bright daylight, darkened room, artificial lighting). Remember that the keyboard is going to be smaller than your desktop, so make sure that you are comfortable with the keyboard configuration and the feel of the keys. Finally, you should only purchase a laptop from a well-established computer maker. There are presently too many manufacturers. Some will not be around in one or two years. Some of the major companies producing notebook computers include: Toshiba, Compaq, ALR, Acer, IBM, Dell, Texas Instrument, and Sharp. Other computer-ware Although desktop computers are very durable and require only minor preventive maintenance, your investment in software and hardware will be protected if you take certain precautions. Surge protectors and UPS UPS are basically rechargeable batteries which provide electricity to a computer when the main electrical source has been turned off. If you have frequent power outages, and it is important that you not lose any data, an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) will allow you to continue working for 15-20 minutes after the electricity goes off. Most importantly it will permit you to finish your work, save the file and exit the program. In the past, UPS were large and expensive devices. Prices have now dropped and the units are smaller. The main consideration is to get enough power to keep your computer operating (i.e., the computer and the monitor). Do not connect the printer to the UPS. Most desktop computers require 200-220 watts. Check your monitor to determine the watts required. Add the watts needed by the computer and the monitor to determine the size of the UPS needed. For the majority of PHC users, a UPS is not warranted. Simply back up or save files frequently. If the power goes off, wait until it resumes and then continue to work. Where voltage tends to vary, you will want to buy a voltage stabiliser as protection against rapid increases in voltage. Because computers do not operate directly on AC current (but low voltage DC current), the utility of a voltage stabiliser may not be needed. Buy one if you think it is necessary. Plastic covers for your equipment When you purchase a computer, printer, keyboard or other accessory, make sure that you also get a plastic cover. At the end of each day or when the computer is not used, take time to cover computer equipment. In a dusty or polluted urban environment, this will minimise the entry of dirt into the computer's internal components. Storage cabinets for software Purchase a storage cabinet that can be locked. Keep all of your original software, manuals and diskettes in the cabinet. This will protect them against loss or theft. Purchase plastic diskettes trays where diskettes can be organised by type: word processing, data base, spreadsheet, etc. Air conditioning and ventilation Many PHC programmes in hot or tropical climates have installed their computers in separate air-conditioned rooms to protect their investments. While this may help, <%4>the heat inside the computer case (box) is more important. For larger computers consider installing two ventilators. Make sure you do not close off the ventilation holes. Protection from mice and other animals If you have a problem with mice, check the computer box and slots in the rear to determine if there are any spaces where mice can enter. Mice can cause damage to wiring and cause an electrical short in the motherboard. Be careful when closing any holes and remember that the computer needs ventilation. Some computers have special covers for the back of the computer to protect against mice entering the computer case. Tape back up of computer files Most PHC programmes will use simple floppy diskettes to back up important financial, personnel and service delivery data. If you want to make sure that all of the data on a hard disk is backed up, you should consider a dedicated tape back up. Tape back up drives use special software and a cartridge tape to copy files to the tape. Normally back ups are done 1-2 times a week. Tape back up drives (which fit next to a floppy or hard drive) start at US$100 and can back up 120 megabytes or more. An investment in a tape back up should be considered as a form of insurance. However, you may have to sacrifice one of your floppy drives to install an internal tape back up. When and where to buy computer equipment @_EXTENSION = buying equipment Cost-effectiveness and the product life cycle Before rushing off to buy a computer, consider the product's life cycle and determine when is the best time to buy. To save money and stay current with technological advances, it is important to make your purchases somewhere around the middle of the life cycle. There are several advantages to this strategy. New products have bugs or problems which are only worked out after a year or more. Prices are highest when a product is introduced and decrease as production increases. Prices also drop when the latest innovative model is introduced. Mid-life products have a full range of software. Programs are written to take advantage of equipment features. If the product is still on the market, it has passed the scrutiny of customers. High speed 80386DX CPUs running at 33-40 MHz are in the middle of their product cycle and prices have dropped dramatically. The mid-range 80486DX will enter its mid-life cycle next and prices will become more affordable. If you must have the latest computer, printer, or modem, then plan to pay more. How to select a computer dealer Here are several questions you can use to help you select a computer dealer: Are the computer sales and technical staff knowledgeable and helpful? If not go somewhere else. Can you try out the equipment with your applications before buying? This may even include renting the equipment and trying it out in your PHC organisation. Are the prices competitive with other dealers in your area? What type warranty and support will you need from the dealer? Do you need a full service (parts and labour) warranty? Will the dealer make on-site repairs or must you take the equipment to the dealer's shop? What is the period of the warranty, and how can the equipment be serviced after the warranty ends? Are all of the components included, or will you have to deal with the manufacturer or local agent? Will you require a full service contract (you pay a fee, the equipment is checked on a regular basis, and equipment is fixed if there are any problems)? Try to get a full parts and service warranty from the dealer. If there are any problems, the dealer will be responsible for repairing the equipment. Finally, make sure that the conditions of the warranty are written and received by you upon delivery of the equipment. Do not accept verbal promises. Make sure you know exactly what you are getting at the time of purchase. Will the dealer provide training courses for your staff to learn the computer and the software? Where computers should be located When choosing a location for your computer(s) consider the physical environment, the amount of work space available, and the lighting and electrical power. The PC User's Guide<$FAnis, N. and Menefee, C. The PC User's Guide. Osborne Mc Graw-Hill, New York, 1991, p. 59.> provides the following guidelines for selecting your work location: Avoid damp or dusty spaces. If you have no choice, use air cleaners and space heaters to moderate conditions as much as possible. Avoid high traffic areas like office entryways where people coming and going can trip, spill coffee, shake out umbrellas, and commit other unintentional mischief. Don't expose the computer to direct sunlight, or air flow from cycling heaters and coolers. Sudden temperature changes cause problems. Avoid direct back lighting, as from a window directly behind you. It creates screen glare. By the same token, avoid facing the window directly yourself. It is hard to look at a screen surrounded by glare. Good ventilation (not gusty drafts) is essential. Steady air circulation will help your computer maintain an even temperature. Don't push your computer flush against a wall or set it up in a closed-in corner. Check to see that the cooling fan exhaust (in the rear of the main computer box) and the front ventilation ports will be clear and unobstructed. Choose a flat, stable work surface. Unstable furniture like card tables and surfaces that are subject to vibration can damage a computer. Avoid soft surfaces like beds or sofas unless you have a laptop or notebook computer. Desktop computers need to be just that, located on a solid, desk-like surface. Keep the system away from strong magnetic sources such as telephones, photocopiers, and motor-generators. Even a magnetised paper clip can destroy data on your disks. References and bibliography Anis, N. and Menefee. C. The PC user's guide. Osborne McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991. Desposito, J. Que's computer buyer's guide. Que, Carmel, Indiana, 1992. Gookin, D. DOS for dummies. IDG Books Worldwide, San Mateo, California, 1991. Jamsa, K. Hard disk power. Sams, Carmel, Indiana, 1990. Jamsa, K. Simply DOS. Osborne McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991. Norton, P. Inside the IBM PC and OS/2. Brady Publishing, London (fourth edition), 1991. Pearson, O. Personal computer buying guide. Consumers Union, New York, 1990. Rosch, W. "The perfect PC," PC Magazine, July, 1992, pp. 110-214. Schildt, H. DOS 5 made easy. Osborne McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991. Simpson, A. Your first computer. Sybex, San Francisco, 1992. Stultz, R. Illustrated MS-DOS 5.0. Micro-Tech Publications, U.A.E., 1992. Acronyms and abbreviations ASCII American Standard Code Information Interchange BPS Bits per second CGA Colour graphics adapter CPU Central processing unit DOS Disk operating system DPI Dots per inch DTP Desktop publishing EGA Enhanced graphics adapter EMS Expanded memory specification IEC Information, education and communication I/O Input and output KB Kilobyte LAN Local area network LIM Lotus-Intel-Microsoft MB Megabyte MFM Modified frequency modulation MHz Megahertz MIS Management Information System MS Millisecond MS-DOS Microsoft Disk Operating System OS Operating system OS/2 Operating System/2 (IBM) PC Personal computer PCL Printer control language PHC Primary health care PHC MAP Primary Health Care Management Advancement Programme QBE Query-by-example RAM Random access memory ROM Read only memory SIMM Single in line memory module SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences VCR Video camera recorder VGA Video graphics array XT Original IBM personal computer Glossary <$FMaterials for this glossary were taken from Pearson, O. Personal computer buying guide. Consumers Union, New York, 1990; Gookin, D. DOS for dummies. IDG Books, San Mateo, California, 1991; Jamsa, K. Hard disk power.Sams, Carmel, Indiana, 1990; Stultz, R. Illustrated MS-DOS 5.0. Micro Tech Publications, U.A.E., 1991; and Simpson, A. Your first computer. Sybex, San Francisco, 1992.> Alt key:A key combination involving the Alt key plus some other key on the keyboard such as a letter, number, or function key. When you see Alt-S, it means press and hold the Alt key, type an S, then release both keys. Note that Alt-S doesn't imply Alt-Shift-S; the S key by itself is fine. Application program:A computer program designed to perform a common application such as word processing, accounting, or database management. ASCII:An acronym for American Standard Code Information Interchange. It is the standardised means of representing letters and numbers in computers. Back up: A method of copying a group of files from a hard drive to a series of floppy disks (though other devices, such as tape systems, can also be used). It could also refer to a duplicate of a single file - an unchanged original, used in case anything happens to the copy you're working on. Batch file: A file that has the filename extension, BAT, in which each line consists of a single DOS command line. DOS reads and executes one batch file line at a time, just as if you had typed the commands from your keyboard. Bits per second or BPS: The number of bits that can be sent or received every second. Dividing the bit rate by 10 provides a more realistic transmission rate: the number of characters per second. Bit: The contraction for "binary digit," the smallest unit of information available to the computer, representing a single 1 or 0 within a binary number. Physically, a bit can be thought of as a single pulse (on or off) in an electronic current. Boot: The process of turning on a computer. When you turn on a computer, you are "booting" it. When you reset a computer, you are "re-booting." Byte: The amount of space required to store a single character (letter, number, or symbol) on a disk or in memory. For example, the word "cat" requires three bytes of storage. Central processing unit: Also called the CPU, microprocessor, processor, or chip. The "brain" of the computer, this chip adds and subtracts billions of electrons, performing the calculations that do the actual work on a computer. CGA: Acronym for colour graphics adapter. CGA was the first graphics standard for the PC (personal computer), providing the PC with colour text and the ability to do graphics with a limited number of colours and a limited resolution. Chip: A chip is any semi-conductor containing an integrated circuit. Command: A short series of keystrokes, entered at the DOS prompt, that tells DOS to carry out a certain task. Computer: A general-purpose electronic machine designed to help people get a job done. Computers are great for quickly doing the paper work, calculations, record-keeping, trial-and-error experimentation, communications, information-gathering, and other managerial tasks. Controller card: The hardware that tells a hard disk what to do, and interacts with the CPU. CPS: Acronym for characters per second. A way to measure the speed of a printer. Cursor keys: These are special keys on the keyboard used to control the cursor on the screen. The four primary keys are the up, down, left, right and arrow keys. Data: Information contained in a computer file. Database: A collection of related information. Desktop publishing(DTP) programs: Programs that combine text and artwork to enable the user to design newsletters, brochures, fancy letterheads, reports, or graphs for presentation purposes. Directory: The table of contents for a disk or sub-directory; a list showing filenames, sizes, and the date that files were created or last modified. Disk drive: An electronic mechanism in the computer where programs and data are stored and accessed. Disk drive controller: The expansion card which, when used with cables, connects the floppy drives and/or hard drive to the computer. Diskette: The small, removable disk used to hold computer data. Diskettes are available in <$E5 1 /4>-inch and <$E3 1/2>-inch sizes. Same as floppy disk. Display: The computer screen or monitor. The term display is rather specific, and is used to refer to what is displayed on the screen as opposed to the monitor (which is hardware). DOS: Acronym for Disk Operating System (pronounced dawss). The name of the most widely used operating system for IBM PCs and compatible computers. Dot-matrix printer: A relatively low-cost printer that works by putting dots of ink on the page. Typically, dot matrix printers are less expensive and produce lower quality output than ink jet and laser printers. EGA: Acronym for enhanced graphics adapter. A short-lived graphics display standard that followed CGA with more colours, higher graphics resolution, and better looking text. Expansion card: A circuit board used to connect an add-on to the computer. Expansion cards are inserted in expansion slots. Expansion slots: Slots provided on the motherboard for connecting add-on circuit boards. Field: A column in a database table that represents a specific type of information, such as Last name, First name, Address, City, State, Zip, and so forth. File: Similar to a file in a filing cabinet, a disk file is a collection of information in one subject area, such as a letter, collection of phone numbers, or last year's tax return. Fixed disk: Also called hard disk. A non-removable device used to store information in the computer so that it can be accessed later. Fixed disks typically store several million characters of data. Flat-file database: A simple database system that stores information and records in any easy-to-access rows-and-columns format. Only one database table can be accessed at a time. Floppy disk: A removable device used to store information. Generally, floppy disks are used to copy information to or from the hard drive. They typically store less than two-million characters of data. Font: A typeface, such as Courier, Helvetica, or Times. Fonts are collections of complete uppercase and lowercase alphabets, numbers, and other symbols that share common design characters. Format: To prepare a disk for use by the computer using the operating system. Also, the general characteristics of a document, including its layout, font and font size, and style. Function keys: Any of the keys on the keyboard that are labelled with the letter "F" and a number. The keys are generally along the top or on the left side of the keyboard. Many programs assign specific tasks to some or all of the function keys. For example, in many programs you can press the F1 key to access on-line help. Graphics: Anything that involves pictures on the computer, including graphs, charts, cartoons, logos, mastheads, drawings, and digitised photographs. Graphics adapter: This hardware controls your monitor. There are three common types of graphics adapters CGA, EGA, and VGA. The graphics adapter plugs into an expansion slot inside your PC. Hard disk: A rigid, non-volatile, high density data storage device; called a fixed disk by IBM. Hardware: The physical equipment of a computer system, such as the computer, monitor and printer. Hayes-compatible: A modem (or sometimes telecommunication software) that uses and recognises the commands and protocols of the Hayes modem systems, which have become the unofficial standards in this area. Ink jet printer: A type of printer that squirts tiny droplets of ink onto paper. Ink-jet printers can produce high quality graphics and text in many fonts. Keyboard: A widely used input device that looks and works like an electronic typewriter. Typically, computer keyboards have a number of extra keys not found on typewriters, including function keys (F-keys). Kilobyte: Abbreviated K or KB. A kilobyte is about 1,000 bytes (actually 1,024). Typically, kilobytes are used to measure the size of computer files, computer memory, and diskette storage size. Laptop: A special, compact type of computer, usually running on batteries, that you can take with you. Laser printer: A printer that uses a dry toner melted on a sheet of paper to produce a high quality output for both text and graphics. Math co-processor: A specialised chip that speeds the processing of certain mathematical functions on your computer. Megabyte: Abbreviated as MB, Mb, or Meg. A megabyte is about one-million bytes. Typically, computer hard disk storage and memory are measured in megabytes. Megahertz: Abbreviated as MHz. A Megahertz is a million cycles per second. The speed of the computer's quartz crystal clock is measured in MHz, and faster clock speeds usually indicate a faster CPU. Memory: Where the computer stores information as it is worked on. Memory is temporary storage, usually in the form of RAM chips. The microprocessor can only manipulate data in memory. Data can be saved on disk for long-term storage. Menu-driven: A term used to describe a command system that lists choices on a screen; a mouse or keyboard arrows are used to make selections. MFM: Modified frequency modulation; a standard ST-506 hard disk data-encoding scheme. Microcomputer: A small computer that uses a microprocessor for a CPU. Millisecond (MS): An abbreviation for milliseconds (thousandths of a second). The average time needed to read information from any given spot on the hard disk is typically measured in ms. Modem: Contraction for "MODulator and DEModulator." A modem is a device that transforms computer information into sound impulses that can be transmitted over telephone lines. Modem speeds are rated by bits per second. Monitor: The television-like device connected to the computer. It is used to display the files, programs, commands, and any other data in your computer's memory. Motherboard: The board in the bottom of your computer that ties the system together. The micoprocessor, memory, and the supporting circuits are all on the motherboard. Mouse: An input device used to point to and select text and/or graphics on the screen. Most mice are palm-sized, have one or more buttons on top to communicate with the computer, and a wire or "tail" that extends from the mouse to a connection on the back of the computer. The plural is "mice". MS-DOS: This is the long, formal title for DOS, the Microsoft disk operating system. Operating System: Abbreviated OS. The main software that determines how you interact with your computer. The OS starts up your computer, performs various housekeeping tasks, communicates with peripheral devices such as disk drives, the monitor, and the keyboard, determines which programs you can (and cannot) use, and provides the chief interface (either text-based or graphical) between you and the computer. PC: A acronym for personal computer. Before the first IBM PC, personal computers were called "microcomputers," after the microprocessor-the computer's brain. The "PC" in IBM PC means personal computer and since that time all microcomputer, even non-DOS computers, have been called PCs. PCL: Acronym for printer control language. A printer language developed by Hewlett-Packard to give the company's line of Laserjet printers the capability of creating varied graphics and near-typeset quality text of all sizes. Pin feed: A method of moving paper through a printer by fitting pins at each end of the platen into holes on the sides of the paper. Pixel: An individual dot on the computer's display, used to show graphics. A graphic image on a computer is made up of hundreds of dots or pixels. Each pixel can be a different colour or in a different position, which creates the image you see on the screen. The number of pixels horizontally and vertically on the display give you the graphics resolution. Plotter: A graphing and drawing tool, similar to a printer, but designed for engineering and other high-precision uses. Port: A special opening in the computer for plugging in cables for various devices such as a printer, keyboard or mouse. Ports may be located on separate boards or they may be built into the computer. Presentation graphics: Graphs or text charts created from data that is entered manually or taken from a database, spreadsheet, or word processing program. Printer: A device designed to produce hard copy output, usually of text materials but possibly other items such as graphics images. Processor: The microprocessor chip which controls the computer. Program: 1) Also called software. A set of commands or instructions that directs the actions a computer can take. 2) This is a special file on disk that contains instructions for the computer. Under DOS, all programs are stored in files with their second part named either .COM, .EXE, or .BAT. To run a program, you need only type in the first part of the filename. Prompt: A symbol or set of symbols, (e.g., C:>>) that tells you DOS is ready to accept a command and may convey additional information. Query: A database management technique where you can ask questions of your database, and isolate specific records for printing reports, displaying data on-screen, storing data for later use, and so forth. RAM: Acronym for random access memory, a read/write type of memory that permits the user to both read the information that is there and write data to it. This is the type of memory available to the user in most systems. See also ROM. Record: A row in a database table that is made up of all the fields and provides complete information about a single item in that table. For example, the record for a customer in a database table might consist of the fields of Last name, First name, Address, City, State, Zip, and so forth, for one person. Relational database: An organisational system that lets you access several data files at once (for example, a mailing list and a phone book). Resolution: Refers to how close together the pixels (dots of light) are on a computer monitor or the dots of ink are on a printer. The higher the resolution, the sharper the screen or printed image appears. ROM: Acronym for read-only memory, a type of storage that permits its reading and use but not any changes. ROMs are pre-programmed at the factory for a specific purpose and are found on many boards such as graphics and in many systems that automatically boot when turned on. See also RAM. Root directory: Every formatted DOS disk starts with one directory called the root directory. As you create directories on you disk, the directories will grow out from the root. Serial port: Output connector designated COM1 through COMn that sends bits one after another to a peripheral device, typically a modem. See also parallel port. Shareware: Programs that are available for a small registration fee, often including updates for little or no extra charge. Shell: An on-screen menu found with some types of operating systems that permits system control through selecting various menu options. Shells tend to be interactive with their system even initiating the transfer of data from one program to another. SIMM: Single in line memory module; a caterpillar-like assembly of memory chips used in place of individual banks of memory chips. Software: The programs that are run on a computer. Spreadsheet programs: Applications programs that provide an electronic financial grid, similar to an accountants pad. These super calculator programs automatically recalculate affected values when you insert new values. Most spreadsheet programs are capable of graphing the results. SPSS: Abbreviation for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, a comprehensive program that contains most of the mathematical routines necessary to perform the statistical calculations needed by professionals working in the social sciences and related fields. Storage: Any place data is kept outside of the main operating RAM; typically a floppy disk or hard disk. Surge protector: An electrical device designed to eliminate voltage spikes from the input power source. Telecommunications programs: Programs that allow one computer to call another. They co-ordinate activity between the computer, modem, telephone line, and remote computer. Utilities: Programs that fill the gap between the basic functions of the operating system, and the more specific work done by application programs. Utilities are available for back up, disaster recovery, file and text search, hard disk optimising, desktop organising, macros, virus protection, and so forth. VGA: Acronym for video graphics array. The current graphics standard on PCs, VGA provides thousands of colours at many resolutions, and has the best colour text display of any PC graphics adapter. Virus: A program designed either to display a bizarre message on your screen, or to harm your files. Special anti-virus programs are available to seek out and destroy these programs. Windows: An extremely popular operating environment. Developed by Microsoft Corporation for IBM/compatibles, it features multi tasking, windows, and a graphical user interface. Word processors: Text editing programs that usually include formatting, a spelling checker, a thesaurus, multiple-column output, indexing, comprehensive printer support, and other features. XT:Original IBM PC (with 8088 processor).